political science power legitimacy state

The world community is a political term that is often used in works on political science, speeches of statesmen and in mass media to designate an interconnected system of states of the world. Depending on the context, it can indicate different groups of countries, united by different economic, political and ideological characteristics. Sometimes means existing international organizations, primarily - UN as an organization uniting almost all countries of the world. Often used as rhetorical a technique for opposing one state and its policy to a group of other states, called in this context "the world community" (for example, " Iran and the world community "or" Israel and the world community ").

V XIX- the beginning XX century in a similar sense, the term "civilized world" was used, which is now considered politically incorrect.

International relations are a sphere of interstate, interethnic communication. In the course of interaction between states and peoples pursuing their interests in this area, various relations are formed: diplomatic, economic, social (their subjects are not states, but various non-governmental organizations), cultural, informational, etc.

Modern trends in international relations:

• - internationalization of practically all spheres of public life. It is expressed in the growth of contacts between people, international exchanges and interconnections, and therefore interdependencies in the economy, education, culture, science, health care, protection of human rights and in ensuring all aspects of its security;
• - the formation of global problems, the solution of which is possible only as a result of successful interaction and cooperation of all peoples living on earth. These include maintaining peace, minimizing war danger, preserving the environment, combating epidemic diseases and crime;
• - demilitarization and democratization - a gradual abandonment of military-force methods of solving problems arising in this area (since they turn out to be less effective and more and more dangerous, including for the party resorting to them), as well as respect for the rights of all those involved in these relations of subjects, no matter how small they may be.

World politics is a part of the system of international relations, the activities of states to ensure their interests by power when solving problems arising in the sphere of international relations. The modern dominant of world politics is the desire to maintain security in its various aspects: military, environmental, legal, technological, informational, etc.

World politics is structurally represented by the foreign policy activities of national states, the global activities of the UN, international unions, organizations and institutions authorized by states and peoples.

The sphere of world politics encompasses the entire field of political relations that is developing between states and in the supranational framework. Since the main elements of world politics are interconnected, it is possible and necessary to talk about world political relations, about a single world political-temporal space, during which or in its constituent parts the main international political actions unfold. The main priorities of world politics are determined by the need to solve common problems facing humanity and the national interests of its subjects.

The leading role of politics in international relations is due to the following factors:

• 1) the subjects of world politics have colossal resources and opportunities to influence the entire world around them, they have powerful levers of control over both political and non-political international processes. These include the activities of the UN, foreign policy activities of sovereign states, leading and authoritative international organizations, bodies, public groups. It is political decisions and agreements of an international character that serve as the basis for the entire world order; they serve as guidelines for the development of the entire complex of relations between states.
• 2) international relations have a pronounced tendency towards globalization, complication and expansion, which requires the improvement of international political mechanisms for their regulation.
• 3) the security issues of all mankind and the problems of its survival are more acute than ever. It is on this direction that the main direction of world politics in the nuclear era is concentrated.
• 4) the resolution of the contradictions of modern world development, between the growing diversity of the world and the political and socio-economic systems functioning in it, on the one hand, and the current trend towards the integrity of mankind, towards the development and expansion of mutual relations between peoples and states - with another. The unity of mankind also means deepening the freedom of human practice, freedom of choice and orientation in the direction of progress. Landmarks and ways of such unity on the planet are outlined and laid by joint efforts by all members of the world community.

When you analyze historical views on society, you inevitably notice the following feature: since Antiquity, the concept of society has been constantly expanding - from the family and the union of tribes to a world power. Today it has expanded to the global community (Figure 3.6).

The ancient Romans, who created a world empire, expanded the concept of social and social. It was no longer a union of tribes, but a huge power was to be called Roman society, for both the capital and the distant outskirts were governed by the same laws, and the inhabitants adhered to the same traditions and ideals. But can a world power, such as the Roman Empire, be built on the model of society?

Rice. 3.6.

It is clear that in superpowers the type of relations between the authorities and the population should be different. The power of the emperor is established from above by himself, therefore it is called autocratic. But in the Greek polis or the Roman Republic, power grew from below - from society. In autocratic states, rulers reign not by the will of the people, but by God's grace. They are only governors, sitting at the top of a huge pyramid of power, which, but in the descending hierarchy of ranks, is very indirectly connected with the population. Can such a relationship between the government and the population be called social? In the ancient sense of the word, no. Rather, state or political, and the state is increasingly moving away from society, which is concentrated mainly at the bottom of the social pyramid.

The ancient Romans could not decide for themselves the question of where the boundaries of society begin and end. Modern thinkers tried to answer it. They introduced a new concept into everyday life - global community, which is understood today by all peoples living on our planet. It should be called a quasi-society to avoid confusion with society in the proper sense of the word.

The fact is that the eight features of E. Shils (see paragraph 3.3) are applicable not only to local, but also to global society. Indeed, the world community is not part of a larger system; marriages are concluded only between members of this association and it is replenished at the expense of their children; it has its own territory (the entire planet), name, history, government and culture. The governing body of the world community is the United Nations, to which all countries are subordinate. The UN provides humanitarian assistance, protects cultural monuments and sends its peacekeeping forces (Blue Helmets) to almost all corners of the Earth. Today, within the world community, regional associations such as the European Union (EU) are being formed, which includes 27 countries united by a single currency, a single economic and political space. The EU has a Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union) and a European Parliament.

The world community is also called world system... This term should be understood in a narrow and broad sense. Prominent American sociologist and political scientist Immanuel Wallerstein proposed to distinguish world empires and world economic systems.

World empire includes several territories united by military and political power. The empires of the Incas, Alexander the Great, the Persian king Darius I, Napoleon, and finally the USSR, which is also referred to the type of world empires, are very heterogeneous (culturally, socially, economically, less often religiously), vast in territory, fragile formations. They are created forcibly and quickly disintegrate.

World economic system Is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. In ancient times, they practically coincided with world empires or served as their source. What is the empire of the Mongols in the XIV century, which included the conquered Russia - an empire or an economic system? If many territories are united only by the fact that taxes or tribute are collected from them, then this is an economic system. It does not have a single political center and governing body. Although it is known that Russian princes went to the Horde to ask for a letter to rule. And where are the British, Spanish and French colonies in Africa? Systems rather than empires.

The last of the world's economic systems - modern capitalism... It has existed for 500 years (since the 15th century), but it never turns into a world empire. Transnational corporations (TNCs) are outside the control of a single government. They freely move huge amounts of capital across state borders.

I. Wallerstein divided the world system into three parts: 1) core(English - core); 2) semi-periphery(semi-periphery); 3) periphery(periphery).

Core- these are the leading industrially developed countries that occupy central positions in the world economy (primarily the United States, Western Europe, Japan). These are the strongest and most powerful states with a perfect production system. They have the most capital, the highest quality goods, the most sophisticated technologies and means of production. The core countries export expensive and high-tech products to the states of the "second and third world" - the countries of the periphery and semi-periphery, which have less power, wealth and influence.

Periphery- these are the most backward and poorest states in Africa and Latin America. They are considered a raw material appendage of the kernel. Here, minerals are mined, but not processed locally, but exported. Most of the surplus product is appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite invests outside their state, enters the service of foreign capital and serves only its interests (even if these people do not go abroad). The political regimes of such countries are unstable, there are frequent coups, social and national conflicts constantly arise. Here the upper class is not separated from the lower by a broad stratum of the middle class.

Since the well-being of the states of the periphery depends on the export of raw materials, technology and capital come only from outside. Governments, most often dictatorial or authoritarian regimes, exist here and are able to more or less intelligently govern the country as long as foreign investment comes in. But Western aid often ends up in the pockets of government officials or in their overseas accounts. Such governments are unstable, they continually unleash international conflicts, internal wars and insurgencies. A similar thing happens in the countries of Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa. Even after revolutions, it doesn't get any easier for them. New governments turn to repression, quickly reveal their incapacity, and soon they are ousted.

The demographic situation of the countries of the "third world" is characterized by contradictory processes: high fertility and high infant mortality; migration from overcrowded villages to underdeveloped cities in search of jobs.

Since the 1960s. countries of the "third and fourth world" borrowed several billion dollars from developed countries. Loans were taken during the period of economic growth in the West, therefore, at low interest rates, but they have to be given out in completely different conditions. The total debt to the West has exceeded $ 800 billion, but there is no way in which borrowers could pay off creditors. The largest debtors are Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Nigeria, Peru, Chile and Poland. Trying to keep the economies of these countries afloat, Western lenders are forced to refinance loans. But more often they are faced with partial or complete insolvency of a particular country. Failure to meet debt obligations on such a large scale is destroying the international financial system. The worst thing is that, as experience shows, abundant infusions of foreign investment in such countries do little to help them get out of the crisis. To improve the situation, an internal restructuring of the economy is needed.

Semi-peripheral occupies an intermediate position between the nucleus and the periphery. These are quite developed industrial countries. Like the core states, they export industrial and non-industrial goods, but they lack the power and economic power of the core countries. For example, Brazil (a semi-peripheral country) exports cars to Nigeria and motors for cars, orange juice extract and coffee to the United States. Production in the semi-periphery countries is mechanized and automated, but all or most of the technological advances with which their own industry is armed are borrowed from the countries of the core. The semi-periphery includes intensively developing countries with dynamic politics and a growing middle class.

If the classification of I. Wallerstein is conveyed in terms of Daniel Bell's theory of post-industrial society, then we get the following relations:

• the core is post-industrial societies;
• semi-periphery - industrial societies;
• periphery - traditional (agrarian) societies.

As already noted, the world system took shape gradually, so different countries at different times could play the role of leaders in the core, roll back to the periphery or take the place of semi-periphery.

Usually one state dominates the core. In the XIV century, the Northern Italian city-states dominated world trade. Holland was leading in the 17th century, England after 1750, and the United States after 1900. In 1560, the core of the world system was located in Western Europe(England, France, Netherlands, Portugal and Spain). The northern Italian city-states, which were previously the most powerful, have joined the semi-periphery. Northeastern Europe and Latin America made up the periphery. Many societies (especially in Oceania and the interior regions of Africa and Asia) were until recently outside the periphery. For a long time they could not join the world capitalist economy, producing and consuming their own products, i.e. doing subsistence farming. Today, there are virtually no such countries. The countries of the former Soviet bloc (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, etc.) are classified as countries of the "second world". For a long time they were fenced off from the world capitalist system. Now they are credited to the periphery or semi-periphery.

Nominated by I. Wallerstein in the 1980s. the theory of the core and the periphery is today considered correct in principle, but it requires certain adjustments and additions. According to the new approach, the basis of the modern international community, which is sometimes referred to as transnational world, are the leading international organizations, 50-60 major financial and industrial blocks, as well as about 40 thousand TNCs. The "Global Economic Federation" is permeated with close economic, political and cultural ties. The largest Western corporations, creating branches all over the world, primarily in the third world countries, entangle the whole world with financial and commodity flows. They make different regions of the world economically dependent on each other. In this global space, there are:

• postindustrial North, which controls trade and financial channels;
• highly industrialized West - a set of national economies of the leading industrialized developed powers;
• the intensively developing "new" East, which is building economic life within the framework of the neo-industrial model;
• raw material South, which lives primarily through the exploitation of natural resources;
• the states of the post-communist world that are in a state of transition.

The movement of the world towards a new type of unification is called geoeconomic, or geopolitical, rebuilding the planet... The new international space is characterized by two trends:

• 1) concentration of making important strategic decisions in a small group of leading powers such as the G7 (after Russia joined it, which became the G8);
• 2) the erosion of centralized regions and formations into many independent points, the sovereignty of small states, an increase in their role in the world community (for example: the events in Yugoslavia, Palestine, etc.).

There is confrontation and misunderstanding between these two tendencies. Important political and economic decisions made by a narrow circle of people can lead to serious consequences in different parts of the world, sometimes affecting the fate of the population of entire countries. An example is the influence of the United States on events in Yugoslavia, when America forced almost all European countries to join the military pressure on the Serbs, although this decision itself was beneficial to a small handful of politicians in the US Congress.

The world community is immensely powerful. Before he applied economic sanctions to Iraq, in its social structure, a small part of the population was rich and just as poor. The general population corresponded to the level of the middle class, even by European standards. After several years of the embargo, Iraq's national currency depreciated, and the bulk of the middle class slipped to the poor.

As the most powerful economic state in the world, the United States also behaves like a political monopoly. Dollars make a one-dollar-one-vote policy. Behind the decisions taken on behalf of international organizations, such as the UN Security Council, IMF, IBRD, WTO, again financed by developed countries, hide the intention and will of a narrow circle of leading powers. Displaced to the political and economic periphery of the South, or developing countries, are fighting the hegemony of the superpowers with the means available to them. Some choose the model of civilized market development and, like Chile and Argentina, are rapidly catching up with the economically developed North and West. Others, due to various circumstances, deprived of such an opportunity, embark on the "warpath". They create branched criminal terrorist organizations and mafia groups scattered all over the world (Islamic fundamentalism, the "Medellin cartel" in Colombia, etc.).

In the new world order, everything is connected with everything. The world monetary and financial system, the strength of which is set by world leaders, primarily the United States, Germany, Japan, England, is no longer as stable as before. Financial crises on the periphery of this system, to which, perhaps, its "whales" would not have paid attention before, today are shaking the entire world system. Thus, the crisis that began in the fall of 2000–2013 in the United States, in a short time struck all countries of the world.

• The "fourth world" is the countries that are the poorest in the world. They are mainly located in Africa and Asia.

the term of the theory and practice of international relations, indicating the maximum degree of generalization of the perception of the world international legal situation and denoting the systemic totality of all existing subjects of international law, both state and other, which are members of this community. has firmly entered the political lexicon of our time and is the object of appeal, as well as the subject of the highest motivation for international initiatives of a global nature. A reference to the will of S.m., as well as an indication of actions performed on his behalf, motivated by his interests, are present in the texts of official documents of the UN and other international organizations. Members of S.m. are peoples, states, social structures of groupings, unions and other associations of this kind, religious associations and movements, organizations, governmental and non-governmental, incl. The UN and other international organizations and institutions of a worldwide nature, as well as regional interstate political, economic, military alliances, transnational economic institutions and structures, international scientific institutions, etc. Political, economic, social, diplomatic, legal, military, humanitarian ties and relations between members of S.m. together constitute a system of international relations, the subjects of which they are.

Before acquiring its modern meaning, the concept of S.m has passed a long historical path, and its evolution continues. Reflections on S.M. are found in antiquity. authors, and later - among the thinkers of the Renaissance, although both of them meant by this something significantly different from today's understanding of this concept. For a long time, the concept of "SM" meant primarily the relationship of the monarchs. Legal mechanisms were formed only to the extent that they were necessary to maintain interstate relations.

After the First World War, the modern concept of "SM" was formed. An important factor in the development of the concept of "sm." was the condemnation of the war as a way of achieving the state's goals. The split of the world into two opposing camps, socialist and capitalist, that occurred at the same time, did not implore the significance of this factor, since Soviet Russia recognized most of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states.

The concept of S.m. in the nuclear missile age, it acquires a meaning and quality that is fundamentally different from the ideas of the past. Comprehension of the objective interdependence of the common destiny of mankind in the second. floor. 20th century led to the fact that it was during this period that a largely contradictory, but nevertheless real, S.m. The realities of the Cold War created unfavorable conditions for a stable all-planetary community of countries and peoples, but the threat of total annihilation turned war from a universal means of repartitioning the world or establishing world domination into a means of strategic balancing and contributed to the mutual containment of the two blocs, limiting their activity. The factor of moral assessment of the actions of this or that state on the part of S.M. Against the background of intersystem ideological confrontation, a pragmatic thesis about the peaceful coexistence of socialism and capitalism developed, which became the foundation of the policy of detente.

A new stage in the formation of S.m. began after the collapse of the world socialist system. The elimination of global ideological antagonism made it possible to talk about the development of a strategy for the development of all mankind. Cm. today it has a multi-component structure replete with various regional associations, but at the same time a system of diverse ties between regional entities and individual states is developing and steadily expanding, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the Paris Club of creditor countries, etc. are functioning.

From the 19th century until the early 20th century, the term "enlightened world" was used. Now it is replaced by the concept of "world community"Because he was considered more politically correct.

World community- this is some hypothetical community of citizens of all countries of the world, united in an integral front in a general outburst of internationalism. The world view community"Is intended to reflect the common goals and activities of states coexisting in the world in the face of the global snags of civilization. The world community is based on the rule of sovereign equality of all states. An example of the world community is the United Nations (UN). community»Is often used in works on political science, statesmen in their speeches and in the media. It is used to manipulate social judgment. This occurs when, under the definition of "world community»A certain point of view is filled in to the recipient of the information. Depending on the context, it can be used as an indication of international organizations that unite approximately all countries in the world, for example, UNESCO. This representation is also used to indicate a group of countries united by political, economic, social and other signs. Often the “world community»Is used as a grandiose technique for opposing one state and its policy to another or a group of other countries. The members of the world community can be states, social unions, structures, groupings and religious associations, movements, economic and military alliances. Relations between members of the world community constitute a system of international relations, and they are their subjects. community owns a multi-component structure, which includes a lot of diverse territorial associations. At the same time, a system of various ties between individual states and territorial entities is being formed and expanded.

UN is the abbreviated name for the United Nations, made in the year that World War II ended. 1945 was the beginning of the unification of many peacekeeping organizations into one, headquartered in the United States, New York.

Instructions

1. Before the emergence of the UN, there were organizations in Europe, North America and Russia that promoted interstate union for the benefit of every society. In particular, the League of Nations and the diplomatic cultural education "European Concert" acted with such a postulate. However, the Second World War demanded the emergence of a more weighty and serious structure. And at the beginning of 1945, the largest powers of the world, such as the USSR, the USA, China, Great Britain and France, at a conference in San Francisco signed an agreement establishing the United Nations. Within six months, 45 more states joined the UN, later Poland joined them.

2. Today the United Nations has about 2 hundred members, including such exotic countries as the Solomon Islands, Micronesia, Guinea-Bissau, Antigua and Barbados. A state can become a new member of the United Nations only if it is ready to establish diplomatic relations and promote peacefulness. Also, the members of the Council must vote for the candidate, with a total of at least nine positive votes out of fifteen. The decisive word belongs to the USA, Russia, China, France and Great Britain, the founding countries of the UN.

3. The United Nations has six structural units. This is the UN General Assembly, which discusses issues related to the maintenance of global peace and security at annual meetings in the presence of attorneys of 193 participating countries. Also included in the UN are the Security Council, the Economic Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Of all the divisions, only the Security Council has the right to make certain decisions regarding the maintenance of peace, right up to the call of the participating countries to collective peacekeeping measures. Resolutions of all other UN divisions are of a recommendatory nature.

4. Within the territory of Soviet Union the first agency belonging to the UN department, preface to work three years after the creation of the United Nations. In 1948, the Information Center was opened in Moscow, later it was joined by fourteen more structures. Today, UN agencies in Russia determine the tactical formation of state programs aimed at maintaining the economic development, health of the country's population, as well as control over the demographic situation and the environment.

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It is often allowed to hear that this or that cultural heritage site is under the protection of UNESCO. The same organization patronizes various socially important events. What is UNESCO and what tasks does it set for itself?

UNESCO (UNESCO) is an abbreviation for the full name of this organization in English: United Nations Educational, Science, Cultural Organization. With about 60 UNESCO bodies operating in all corners of the globe and headquartered in Paris, UNESCO is headed by a Director-General, who is elected for a four-year term. The history of the organization dates back to the 40s of the last century.In 1942, the allied countries discussed the prospects for improving the educational and cultural systems that were supposed to be at the conclusion of World War 2. The conclusion of the negotiations was the signing of the UNESCO Charter on November 16, 1945 and the creation of a preparatory commission. The first meetings of the UNESCO General Assembly were held in Par 1946 The aim of UNESCO is to consolidate peace and establish general security by increasing the availability and quality of education everywhere, establishing a dialogue of civilizations, preserving the cultural heritage of all nationalities, ensuring equality for all inhabitants of the Earth, regardless of gender and race, language and religion. UNESCO also sees its mission in conquering poverty and hunger, eradicating ethnic strife, preserving the Earth's biosphere and maintaining a microclimate. Today, one of the main goals of the organization is the dissemination of modern communication tools to unite the global society. In particular, UNESCO has long supported the Free Software Foundation, and currently UNESCO is setting itself a lot of tasks, prioritizing African countries and gender equality.

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Political science Is the science of politics. Politics plays a huge role in the life of society, it permeates all spheres of social life. The formation of political universities of power ensures the typical functioning of society, regulates the relationship between society and the state, as well as between the peoples of different countries.

Instructions

1. The word "political science" is of Greek origin, the literal translation of politikos is "social, state", politis is "citizen" and logos is "learning, science." Political science- a system of skills about politics, the doctrine of state management.

2. The political system of society is represented by many spheres of life, including economic, social, spiritual, legal, etc. Political science as science unites in itself the comprehension of all spheres, it is a complex broad study of the political system of society in the aggregate.

3. The political system of society consists of four narrowly interconnected parts: institutional, regulatory, communicative and ideological. The institutional direction of political science comprehends political universities and is dominant in science. This subsystem plays the main role, from the fact that the subject of comprehension is the forms of political government, political regimes, government bodies, parties and other political movements, electoral bodies, etc.

4. The basis of the regulatory direction of political science is the political and legal norms on which the power in this or that country is based, in addition, it includes national traditions and customs, accepted beliefs and theses followed by a huge part of society.

5. The communicative direction of political science comprehends the relationship between political universities and citizens of the country. The object of comprehending the ideological direction is political views, doctrines that underlie the creation and subsequent formation of subjects of 3 other areas of political science (universities of power, political organizations, legislative and legal norms, electoral strategy, etc.).

6. Political scientists are guided by a huge number of accepted ways to find political processes and relationships between political bodies and citizens of the state. These methods are various, however, they can be divided into three main groups.

7. General logical methods are borrowed from related sciences such as philosophy and sociology. These methods are auxiliary for political scientists: review and synthesis, induction and deduction, systematization, abstraction, etc.

8. Empirical methods of political science are associated with the research and review of real political facts. These are, first of all, statistical methods, as well as conducting surveys of the population, acquiring the judgments of specialists, etc.

9. Methodological methods represent a commonality of different methods for acquiring an assessment of the importance of current political phenomena for society, detecting dependencies between different spheres of its life (economic, social, cultural) and their power for politics. The methodological methods include the following approaches: sociological, behavioral, normative-value, anthropological, psychological, comparative, etc.

10. Politics is related to any member of society, from the fact that every citizen of the country plays a certain role in the formation of political views and trends. Political science comprehends both a separate figure (subject) and a group of individuals, society, the state, as well as the ability of one person or a group of people (power) to govern the state, to control the behavior of society in the aggregate, following national goals.

Internal state policy is mainly aimed at solving those problems that affect aspects of the life of the population of certain regions. Most people are disunited, and therefore the state is faced with the issue of using territorial policy.

Territorial policy is an integral component domestic policy state, which is aimed at leveling the tier of life on average in the regions with the help of a complex of various economic, legislative and fiscal measures. Territorial policy implies a reasonable administrative-regional division, as well as its comprehension with the whole of conducting a competent internal policy. With the help of legislative and economic levers, the state, by building a vertical ladder of communication between the subjects and the center, can quickly and comprehensively solve not only obstacles within the regions, but also allows it to become an arbiter in resolving conflict situations between different subjects of the country. Territorial policy has several directions, including: - identification of underdeveloped regions and subjects of the country; - stimulation of the formation of regions in need; - subsidies and other economic injections into the economies of regions in need; - allocation of regions - recipients and regions - donors. Territorial policy includes a number of elements that are designed to influence the life of regions in the aggregate: - Fiscal policy - common means and methods for organizing tax collection by regions and constituent entities of the country; - Fiscal policy - especially reasonable division of budget funds for pouring them into regions; - Pricing policy - setting prices and tariffs on different territories oriyah of the country; - Public policy - pursuing a policy to support citizens in various subjects of the state. In particular, one of the main tasks of territorial policy is the formation of the national economy by stimulating the formation of entrepreneurship and industry in the regions. The allocation of donor regions and recipient regions allows the state to more competently “pump out” free funds from wealthy regions and pour them into regions - “poor people”.

Union, along with a particle and a preposition, refers to the official parts of speech in the morphological system of the Russian language. The name of the term indicates its function - to be a means of communication, to "lead to a union" different syntactic constructions (homogeneous members and primitive sentences as part of a difficult one) and independent sentences in the text. In addition, the union expresses the relationship between these syntactic constructions.

You will need

• - linguistic dictionary;
• - a textbook on the Russian language.

Instructions

1. How to define a union Find a series of homogeneous members in a simple sentence. Establish a connection between them. Please note that in this construction only conjunctive conjunctions are used. In the sentence "Frightened clouds swirled, pushed and ran into the distance" homogeneous predicates "pushed and ran" are connected by a compositional connection with the help of the union "and". Find the boundaries of primitive sentences in a difficult one. Establish a connection between them. In the complex sentence “The room became narrow, and the rooms were too visible”, two primitive sentences are connected with the support of the “yes” union. Find grammatical means of communication between independent sentences in the text. Often one of them is the compositional union: “The blizzard has subsided. And at once the snowdrifts settled, the snow darkened ”.

2. Remember that a union, like any part of speech, has certain morphological signs. By morphological structure, unions are non-derivative (antiderivatives) and derivatives. The first group is made up of unseparable and not correlated with independent parts of speech unions: and, a, either, or, etc. In another group, conjunctions that are word-formatively associated with remarkable words: therefore, so that it is true, etc. According to their structure, unions are divided into primitive, consisting of one word (like, yes, if), and combined - consisting of several words (so as, in spite of the fact that, not only ... but also). According to variants of use, unions are single (but, incidentally, the same), repeated (then ... that; or ... or; ​​and ... and), double (although ... but; only just ... how; if ... then).

3. A particularly revealing function of a union is its ability to express semantic relations in a sentence. If there is an equal connection, define the compositional conjunctions (connecting, separating and adversary). If there are relations of subordination of the subordinate clause to the main one, define subordinate unions. Among them are: explanatory (what, in order, how); comparative (as if, as if, true); concessive (true, despite the fact that); conditional (if); temporary (as soon as, later); causal (because, because); target (after that in order, in order in order).

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Helpful advice
Do not confuse alliances that are service units speech, and allied words, expressed by independent parts of speech (pronouns and adverbs). Use the technique of posing a grammatical question and defining a syntactic role when distinguishing. Let's say, "I said I was going to the movies." The word "what"? it is a union, because it is impossible to put a question to him, he is also not a member of the proposal. "The house that stood on the river bank was visible from afar." The union word "what" is expressed by a relative pronoun, since he is asked the question (what?), indicates the word "house" and is a subject in the subordinate clause.

The political system of any modern state is rather difficult. It includes not only the various tiers of the legislative, executive and judicial branches, but also a wide range of political organizations. Parties and social movements play a significant role in the life of the state.

The place of political organizations in social life

In democracies, political organizations have a significant impact on the implementation of foreign and domestic policies. Their action is aimed at especially complete satisfaction of the interests of the most diverse social groups, which differ in their composition and political views. Political organizations and movements are traditionally built according to a professional, ethnic or class sign. A political organization is essentially a mass association of people on a voluntary basis, which has its own personal goals, expressed in the founding and program documents. Such organizations are being built to solve not only economic, but also political problems. The main one is participation in the struggle for representation in government bodies. As an example, it is allowed to cite any political party.Being a full-fledged subject of the political process, such social associations of citizens differ from other types of organizations in that they tend to gain access to power. Political work includes campaigning among wide sections of the population, popularizing the ideas of the movement, and stretching the sphere of power. Political organizations express and protect the interests of a particular social group.

Political Party

A political party is distinguished from other types of similar organizations by the traditionally rough hierarchy between different tiers, which is needed to increase the manageability of each system and well-coordinated work. The indispensable components of the party are the governing core, the control unit, the control bodies, the energetic members of the organization and a significant number of sympathetic elements. Only a high degree of organization allows a political party to do well in the struggle for power. Parties and other political organizations act in anticipation of a furor in the political struggle. To do this, they are zealous to enlist the help of not only a certain social stratum, but also more of the broad masses of the population. In their activities, parties are repeatedly forced to make temporary alliances with other movements and organizations that have similar goals. As usual, a political party has official membership and relatively strict rules and regulations enshrined in the organization's charter. Joining the ranks of such a political association, the newest participant assumes certain responsibilities and receives the right to participate in the work of the party, in joint decision-making and in the events held by the party. For many citizens, energetic participation in the political life of a country begins with being inducted into a party whose goals and objectives are in line with their inner convictions.

Many have heard the term "sovereign" 1000 times in their lives during each study, both at school and at the institute. However, few people fully understand its true meaning in relation to such a political university as the state.

History of origin

In order to realize what the present state is now, it is necessary to remember before everyone how things were with this before. Now in the world there are about 200 sovereign states legally enshrined and recognized by the international United Nations Organization. But even at the end of the 19th century they were not there, but there were only plots of land with an approximate border and territory belonging to one or another state. Many lands did not belong to anyone, were empty or were inhabited by nomads. The states existing at that time became the basis and prerequisite for the origin of the current, modern sovereign states. However, in modern conditions, there are also territories that are now unpopulated or only partially inhabited. There are even territories inhabited by a radical population, completely isolated from civilization and all public universities.

Sovereign state now

Despite the fact that the distinguishing mark of a sovereign state is its isolation and independence, this does not mean at all that it does not consider the interests of other states in its activities and does not cooperate with them both in political, market and social issues. The interaction of all sovereign states is based on the rule of international law, which establishes certain theses, rules and laws that are integral to all. At the same time, no one has the right to interfere in the affairs of a sovereign state without her permission. In order for the current state to be considered sovereign, it is obliged to recognize it as such, and this recognition does not invariably signify the desire of the one who has recognized it to establish diplomatic relations with it. Despite the fact that many sovereign states in modern conditions are such both de jure and de facto, individual representatives have sovereignty in their country only on paper, that is, they are de jure sovereign, but in fact do not have control of their territory ... The Order of Malta can be cited as a shining example of such a story. At the same time, the opposite situation may develop, when the territory belongs to the state, and it does not support international relations by any other state. The main goal of all sovereign states is now the legal representation of their citizens, control over the observance of their rights and wills. In a sovereign state, the supremacy belongs to the government, to which the people entrust all issues related to their own rights.

Globalization is called the transformation of a phenomenon from the scale of one country into a phenomenon of the world tier. That is, what once concerned one state or some of its territory, in the process of globalization, begins to affect, directly or implicitly, all the inhabitants of the Earth.

The pivotal result of globalization is the distribution of labor on the international level, the widespread migration of human and production sources, international standardization of technical and economic processes, as well as the mutual penetration of cultures of different states. Globalization encompasses all spheres of social life, and as a result, the world becomes more dependent on its individual parts. However, it is extremely clear that the process of globalization can be traced in the economy - world markets are being formed, the integration of different directions of the world economy is taking place. At the end of the last century, world integration reached a special rapid pace, this was facilitated by the fall of the "Iron Curtain" and the collapse of the USSR, as well as the energetic inclusion of China in the world economy and the global strong formation of information technology. The phenomenon of globalization has both positive and negative results. Moreover, different specialists, scientists, politicians usually interpret the same results of globalization in different ways. So, apparently, as a result of globalization, an integral transnational economic system is being formed, and interstate borders today are becoming less and less important over the past decade. This is evidenced by the increasing rate of migration of peoples from different countries on each planet. This will permissible lead to the formation of the so-called "sociomonolith" - indivisible according to national, political, religious and other signs of society. Some consider this an excellent inclination, while others advocate the preservation of individual cultures and economies in any given country. At the same time, it seems that the formation of an indivisible integral society is an inevitable consequence of the globalization process, one that is gaining more and more rapid cycles these days. And an especially correct result of such a comprehensive unification of the world can be the solution of one of the most serious tasks on a planetary scale, which for millennia has not left our planet - the danger of interethnic wars and armed collisions. There is a social and political movement of opponents of globalization - anti-globalization. Its members often include prominent scientists, economists, social activists and other social activists who criticize the process of global economic, political and cultural integration into the whole world community.

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Instructions

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For a long time now, science has been discussing such a major and serious snag as the population explosion. Scientists are seriously concerned about its consequences. There is a debate in society about the likelihood of eliminating its causes and outcomes.

A demographic explosion is a sharp spike in population growth. This process occurs mainly due to a decrease in mortality and an increase in fertility in the progressing countries of the world. At the end of the 17th century. the growth rate of the world's population actually doubled, which was due to a number of factors. Firstly, it is connected with the formation of the industry. Secondly, the demographic explosion is due to socio-economic changes that have allowed women to work on an equal basis with men. Third, the mortality tier dropped sharply. At the current time, the number of our planet is approximately 7 billion people, each year the arrival is from 80 to 85 million people. The population explosion has several characteristics: the metamorphosis of the population size leads to an increase in unemployment, as well as to a change in many socio-economic relations. Moreover, this applies not only to progressing countries, but also to each world community, becoming one of the global snags of our time. however, the danger of overpopulation persists. This applies exclusively to African countries (such as Nigeria, Angola and others), where demographic growth is still very high. In addition, in some countries, such as China, they had to resort to formidable measures. Families with one child enjoy different benefits, and husbands with 2 or more children are required to pay a fine, the amount of which depends on income and place of residence. One of the snags was the reluctance of many residents to take family planning seriously. This is largely due to world religions, which adhere to a conservative position in relation to children. The results of the population explosion can be dire: the regression of the world economy, poverty, hunger and the depletion of all the sources of the planet available to society.

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Today the concept of "society" has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or all countries of the world. In this case, we must talk about the world community.

If society is understood in two meanings - narrow and wide, then a transition from a separate taken society, considered in the unity of its territorial boundaries (country) and political structure (state), to the world community, or the world system, which implies all of humanity as an essential whole, is inevitable. ...

The idea of ​​a global or, as they say today, planetary, unity of all people did not always exist. It appeared only in the 20th century. World wars, earthquakes, international conflicts made the earthlings feel the commonality of their fate, dependence on each other, the feeling that they are all passengers of the same ship, the well-being of which depends on each of them. Nothing like this happened in previous centuries. Even 500 years ago it was difficult to say that people living on earth were united into a single system. In the past, humanity was an extremely variegated mosaic of isolated formations - hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires, which had an independent economy, politics and culture.

Since then, the process of creating a world system has accelerated dramatically. This was especially felt after the era of great geographical discoveries (although the beginning was laid earlier), when Europeans became aware of everything, even the most remote corners of the planet. Today we can only talk about geographic remoteness or the separate existence of countries and continents. In a social, political and economic sense, the planet is a single space.

The central governing body of the world community is the United Nations (UN). All countries are subordinate to it, it provides humanitarian assistance, protects cultural monuments and sends peacekeeping forces (UN Blue Helmets) to almost all corners of the Earth. Today, regional associations such as the European Community are being formed within the world community, which includes 12 countries with 345 million people, united by an economic, monetary and political union. The community has a Council of Ministers and a European Parliament.

The main factor in the development of world civilization is the tendency towards uniformity. The mass media (mass media) are transforming our planet into a “big village”. Millions of people become witnesses of events that have taken place in different places, millions are exposed to the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are used everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. When they talk about the world community, they mean the process of globalization, the consequence of which such a community has become.

Our world is gradually turning into a global communication system in which societies break up into separate groups that flow, depending on the changing life priorities, from one social network to another. It is possible that the term societies-networks, where there is a continuous exchange of information and which are not closed, thanks to global networks, within their state borders, is more suitable to describe the new situation.

As a result of Russia's joining the world information community, the main content of social interaction in Russian society is the continuous exchange of information. This position of A.N. Kacherov substantiated using the results of an empirical study *, as a result of which he came to the following conclusions:

since the breakthrough of information flows to Russia (starting approximately from 1989-1992), there has been a decrease in the number of direct contacts or so-called "face-to-face" interaction;

the number of contacts by means of communication has increased (telephone, fax, computer networks);

there is an exponential growth of "artificial" interaction based on radio and television;

personal contacts between individuals are reduced in number and duration of time due to the fact that the increased speed of information flows forces people to avoid unnecessary emotional stress and expenditure of energy in personal contacts.

The entry of Russia into the system of world communications to a certain extent - to a large extent or not, it remains to be seen by sociologists - has changed the traditional way of life, its inherent channels and methods of communication. A modern resident of a large metropolis has at his disposal all the necessary means of communication and is connected to the global communications network. The more calls to the network he accepts or makes, the more he corresponds to the lifestyle adopted in the world information community. The old content of communications - scientific conversations, complaints and squabbles, conversations with friends and mistresses, administrative or business negotiations - are clothed today in a new technical form.

Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, between which traditional boundaries are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system... Since the middle of the 20th century and especially in recent decades, the trend towards globalization has qualitatively influenced society. National and regional stories no longer make sense.

Preindustrial society was an extremely variegated, heterogeneous mosaic of isolated social units, from hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires to the newly emerging nation-state. Each of these units had an independent and self-sufficient economy, its own culture. Postindustrial society is completely different. In political terms, there are supranational units of various scales: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (the former socialist camp), coalitions of ruling groups (G7), continental associations (European Community), world international organizations (UN). The contours of the world government in the person of the European Parliament and INTERPOL are already obvious. The role of regional and world economic agreements is growing. There is a global division of labor, the role of multinational and transnational corporations is growing, which often have incomes that exceed the income of the average national state. Companies such as Toyota, McDonald's, Pepsi-Cola or General Motors have lost their national roots and operate all over the world. Financial markets react to events with lightning speed.

The tendency towards uniformity becomes dominant in culture. The mass media (mass media) are transforming our planet into a “big village”. Millions of people become witnesses of events that have taken place in different places, millions are exposed to the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are used everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. A single, or at least a generally accepted spoken language, English, is being formed. Computer technology is spreading the same software all over the world. Western popular culture is becoming universal, and local traditions are being eroded.

Along with the term "world community" in science, other concepts are widely used that are very similar to it, but have their own distinctive features... You can meet them by reading not only special literature or textbooks, but also the press, listening to radio and television. Let's take a look at them. It will be about the world system, the world economic system, the world empire, civilization.

The term "world system" was introduced into scientific circulation by Immanuel Wallerstein *. He believed that the familiar word "society", borrowed by scientists from everyday practice, is too imprecise, since it is almost impossible to separate it from the term "state" in a consistent way. Instead of both, he proposed the concept of "historical system", thanks to which, as he believed, two kinds of sciences would finally be reunited - historical (ideographic) and social (nomothetic). The old term "society" separated them, and the new term is intended to unite them. In the concept of "historical system", sociological and historical views of the world coexist.

In addition to him, Niklas Luhmann wrote about world society. He defined society through communication and communicative reach. But if so, then the only one closed system, which is not part of another, built on the principles of communication, is only the world society.

According to I. Wallerstein, there are only three forms, or varieties, of historical systems, which he called mini-systems, world empires and world economies (although other varieties can be distinguished). Mini-systems are small in size, short-lived (life span of about six generations) and culturally homogeneous. World empires are big political structures, culturally they are much more diverse. The mode of existence is the withdrawal of tribute from subordinate territories, primarily rural districts, which flows to the center and is redistributed among a small stratum of officials. World economies are huge, unequal chains of integrated production structures separated by numerous political structures. The logic of their existence is that the surplus value is unevenly distributed in favor of those who were able to seize a temporary monopoly on the market. This is "capitalist" logic *.

In that distant era, which we can only judge from archaeological excavations, when gatherers and hunters lived on the earth, mini-systems were the predominant form. At an early stage in history, many social systems existed simultaneously. Since these societies were mainly tribal, one should proceed from the existence of many thousands of social systems *. Later, in connection with the transition to agriculture and the invention of writing, namely in the period between 8000 BC. NS. and 1500 AD NS. on earth all three types of "historical systems" coexisted simultaneously, but the dominant one was the world empire, which, expanding, destroyed and absorbed both mini-systems and world economies. But when world empires collapsed, mini-systems and world economies reappeared on their ruins. History seems to be reminiscent of the cycle of substances in nature.

Most of what we call the history of this period is the history of the emerging and dying world empires, says I. Wallerstein. World economies were still too weak at the time to compete with the three forms of "historical systems."

Around 1500, from the consolidation of scattered world economies that miraculously survived the next invasion of world empires, the modern world system was born. Since then, “it has reached its full development as a capitalist system. By its internal logic, this capitalist world economy then expanded and took over the entire globe, absorbing all existing mini-systems and world empires. Thus, by the end of the XIX century. for the first time in history, there was only one historical system on Earth. We still exist in this position ”*.

The theory of the world system, created by I. Wallerstein in the mid-70s, makes it possible to explain many historical facts that defied the explanation of the traditional theory of society. Undoubtedly, the hypothesis of the cyclical emergence and disintegration of world empires is very heuristic, among which it is necessary to include our country, which took the form of either the tsarist autocracy or the Soviet totalitarian state. From the eternal cycle of historical forms of society follows not only the inevitability of the collapse of social giants and the emergence of social dwarfs. But there is also a hypothesis about the internal instability of the "loosely packed", loose in terms of the specific gravity of a gram of "social substance" per unit area of ​​world empires. Internal cultural heterogeneity did not allow the USSR to exist until the third millennium, despite strict external political control.

All world empires were very fragile and unstable. What is the empire of the Mongols in the XIV century, which included the conquered Russia, as a non-heterogeneous and internally contradictory union, where power was held only "on bayonets"?

If many territories are united only by the fact that taxes or tribute are collected from them, then such a union is doomed to disintegration. Even the presence of a single political center and governing bodies does not help. Although Russian princes went to the Horde to ask for a letter to rule, this ritual remained an empty formality, since none of the Mongolian "top managers" ever interfered in the internal affairs of appanage princes. Similarly, in the 70s and 80s, Soviet party functionaries ceased to control the abuses and freethinking of “appanage princes” in Uzbekistan, the republics of Transcaucasia, and even the Volga regions. The autonomy of the periphery in relation to the center turned into a tragedy for the entire system.

World empires included several territories united by military and political power. The empires of the Incas, Alexander the Great, Darius I, Napoleon, and finally the USSR, which is also referred to the type of world empires, represented very heterogeneous (culturally, socially, economically, less often religiously), vast in territory, politically fragile formations. They were created forcibly and quickly disintegrated.

Europeans have long practiced transoceanic trade and economics. It was they who became the pioneers of a new form of the "historical system" - the world system. Over time, all over the world, people fell into the European sphere of influence. The beginning of European hegemony can be traced back to the Crusades - Christian military expeditions undertaken between the 11th and 14th centuries to reclaim the "sacred land" from the Muslims. The Italian city-states used them to expand trade routes. In the 15th century, Europe established regular contacts with Asia and Africa, and then with America. Europeans colonized other continents, arriving as sailors, missionaries, merchants, and officials. The discovery of America by Columbus forever united the Old and New Worlds. Spain and Portugal mined slaves, gold and silver in foreign countries, pushing the natives into remote areas.

With the development of non-European territories, not only the nature of economic ties has changed, but the whole way of life. If earlier, literally until the middle of the 17th century, the diet of a European consisted of subsistence products, that is, what was grown inside the continent by rural residents, then in the 18th and 19th centuries, the assortment of items, primarily of the highest class (it always goes at the forefront of progress), imports are included. One of the first overseas commodities was sugar. After 1650, it was consumed not only by the upper strata, but also by the middle, and then by the lower. A century earlier, a similar story happened with tobacco. By 1750, even the poorest English family could drink sugar tea. From India, where for the first time sugar was obtained in a production way, Europeans brought it to the New World. The climate in Brazil and the Caribbean created ideal conditions for the cultivation of sugar cane. Europeans have established plantations here to meet the growing demand for sugar around the world. The demand for sugar and its supply led to the international market, and subsequently to the slave trade. Cheap labor was needed for the growing plantation economy, and Africa was the labor market. Sugar and cotton became the main subject of international trade, linking continents on opposite sides of the ocean.

In the 17th century, two trade triangles developed, including the sugar and slave trade. First, the goods produced by England were sold in Africa, and African slaves were sold in America, while American tropical goods (especially sugar) were sold to England and its neighbors. Secondly, alcoholic beverages from England were delivered by ships to Africa, African slaves to the Caribbean, and molasses (from sugar) was sent to New England to make alcoholic beverages. African slave labor increased American wealth, which mostly returned to Europe. Products grown by slaves were consumed in Europe. Here from Brazil came coffee, paints, sugar and spices, from North America - cotton and alcohol.

Gradually, international trade became the dominant factor in development. Soon, capitalism began to be defined as an economic orientation to the world market in order to generate income. The concept of a world capitalist economy has developed - a single world system involved in production for sale and exchange more with the aim of increasing profits than to ensure the well-being of the people. Now it indicates in which direction to move individual countries. Modern world is a world system based on capitalism, which is why it is called the "capitalist world system".

"The unit of analysis of the modern world system is the capitalist world economy," writes I. Wallerstein *.

The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. This concept is broader than the world capitalist economy, since it includes countries with a capitalist and non-capitalist economy in its orbit, but also than the concept of the world system.

The world capitalist economy is the highest and final form of the world economic system. It has existed for almost 500 years, but it has not turned into a world empire. Transnational corporations are outside the control of a single government. They freely transfer huge amounts of capital across state borders. The so-called socialist camp, which included the USSR, Cuba, Romania, the GDR, Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Vietnam, belongs to the type of world economic systems. They did not have a single government, each country is a sovereign state. So this is not an empire. But between them there was an international division of labor, cooperation and economic exchange within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In a broad sense, the world system includes all the countries currently existing on the planet. She received the name of the world community.

So, at the global level, society is turning into a world system, which is also called the world community. There are two forms of such a system - world empires (many territories, politically united into one state formation) and world economic systems (countries developing a similar economy, but not politically united into one state).

Civilizations belong to the type of world, or global, systems. But unlike the world system, civilization reflects the socio-cultural, not the economic and political aspect of human development. This concept, like a world empire or a world system, is broader than a country or state. It is also advisable to talk about civilization specially.

Civilization, like the previous concepts, reflects the global level of human society, where the integration of social systems takes place. Scientists continue to argue about its content. Civilization is understood by them in two meanings.

In the first case, civilization denotes a historical epoch that replaced "barbarism", in other words, it marks the highest stage in the development of mankind. Adjacent to it is the definition of O. Spengler: civilization is the highest stage in the development of culture, at which its final decline occurs. Both approaches have in common the fact that civilization is thought of historically - as a stage of a progressive or regressive movement of society.

In the second case, civilization is associated with a geographic place, meaning local, regional and global civilizations, for example, eastern and western civilizations. They differ in economic structure and culture (a set of norms, customs, traditions, symbols), which includes a specific understanding of the meaning of life, justice, fate, the role of work and leisure. Thus, Eastern and Western civilizations differ precisely by these fundamental features. They rest on specific values, philosophy, principles of life and a way of the world. And within the framework of such global concepts, specific differences of people in behavior, manner of dressing, types of dwelling are formed.

Today, scholars have agreed that the first and second approaches are applicable only to societies that stand at a sufficiently high level of difference, wherever they are geographically located. In this case, outside civilization, in particular, the primitive societies of Polynesia and Oceania, where a primitive way of life still exist, there is no written language, cities and states, find themselves outside of civilization. It turns out a kind of paradox: they have culture, there is no civilization (where there is no written language, there is no civilization). Thus, society and culture arose earlier, and civilization later. In the entire history of existence in conditions of civilization, mankind has lived no more than 2% of the time.

The combination of place and time provides a strikingly rich palette of civilizations. Historically known, in particular, the Eurasian, Eastern, European, Western, Muslim, Christian, ancient, medieval, modern, ancient Egyptian, Chinese, East Slavic and other civilizations.

The same I. Wallerstein, mentioned above, divided the world system into three parts:

semi-periphery,

periphery.

The core - the countries of Western Europe, North America, Japan - includes the strongest and most powerful states with an improved production system. They have the most capital, the highest quality goods, the most sophisticated technologies and means of production. These countries export expensive and high-tech products to the periphery and semi-periphery.

The states of the semi-periphery and periphery are the countries of the so-called "second" and "third" world. They have less power, wealth, and influence.

The term "third world" was coined by the French in 1952 to describe a group of countries that, during the Cold War era between the USA and the USSR (respectively, the first and second worlds) did not join any of the warring parties. Among them were Yugoslavia, Egypt, India, Ghana and Indonesia. In the second half of the 50s, the term takes on a broader meaning. He began to designate all underdeveloped countries. Thus, its meaning was filled not with geographical, but with economic content. The underdeveloped countries began to include all of Latin America, all of Africa (excluding South Africa), all of Asia (excluding Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Israel). And some countries, such as the countries of the African Sahara, Haiti and Bangladesh, burdened with extreme poverty and misery, were even included in the fourth world. They were separated from the third world, which was already on the path of economic progress.

The peripheral countries are the most backward and poorest states in Africa and Latin America. They are considered a raw material appendage of the kernel. Minerals are mined, but not processed locally, but exported. Most of the surplus product is appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite invests outside their state, they enter the service of foreign capital and serve only its interests (even if these people do not go abroad). Political regimes are unstable, there are frequent coups, social and national conflicts constantly arise. The upper class is not separated from the lower by a broad stratum of the middle class.

Since their well-being depends on the export of raw materials, technology and capital come only from outside. Governments, most often dictatorial or authoritarian regimes, exist and are capable of more or less reasonably managing the country as long as foreign investment comes. But Western aid often ends up in the pockets of government officials or in their overseas accounts. Such governments are unstable, they continually unleash international conflicts, internal wars and insurgencies. A similar thing happens in the countries of Latin America, Iran and the Philippines. Even after revolutions, it doesn't get any easier for them. New governments turn to repression, quickly reveal their incapacity and soon they are ousted.

The demographic situation in the third world countries is characterized by contradictory processes: high birth rate and high infant mortality; migration from overcrowded villages to underdeveloped cities in search of jobs.

Since the 1960s, third and fourth world countries have borrowed several billion dollars from developed countries. Loans were taken during the period of economic growth in the West, therefore, at low interest rates, but they have to be given out in completely different conditions. The total debt to the West has exceeded 800 billion dollars, but there is no way in which borrowers could pay off creditors. The largest debtors are Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Nigeria, Peru, Chile and Poland. Trying to keep the economies of these countries afloat, Western lenders are forced to refinance loans. But more often they are faced with partial or complete insolvency of a particular country. Failure to meet debt obligations on such a large scale is destroying the international financial system.

In 1998, Russia declared its insolvency to Western investors. A scandal broke out, and then a global crisis, which the world has not known since the end of World War II. Some Western banks that bought government securities (GKO) in Russia went bankrupt or were on the verge of bankruptcy. Russia, which previously stood firmly among the developed economic powers, essentially showed that it belongs to the countries of the third world.

The worst thing is that, as experience shows, abundant infusions of foreign investment in such countries do little to help them get out of the crisis. To improve the situation, an internal restructuring of the economy is needed.

The semi-periphery occupies an intermediate position between the nucleus and the periphery. These are quite developed industrial ones. Like the core states, they export industrial and non-industrial goods, but they lack the power and economic power of the core countries. For example, Brazil (a semi-peripheral country) exports cars to Nigeria and motors for cars, orange juice extract and coffee to the United States. Production is mechanized and automated, but all or most of the technological advances with which their own industry is armed are borrowed from the countries of the core. The semi-periphery includes intensively developing countries with dynamic politics and a growing middle class.

If we convey Wahlerstein's classification in terms of D. Bell's theory of post-industrial society, then we get the following relations:

the core is post-industrial societies;

semi-periphery - industrial societies;

periphery - traditional (agrarian) societies.

As already mentioned, the world system took shape gradually. Accordingly, different countries at different times could play the role of leaders in the core, roll back to the periphery, or take the place of a semi-periphery.

Usually one state dominates the core. In the XIV century, the Northern Italian city-states dominated world trade. Holland was leading in the 17th century, England after 1750, and the United States after 1900. And in 1560, the core of the world system was located in Western Europe (England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain). The North Italian city-states, which were previously the most powerful, have joined the semi-periphery. Northeastern Europe and Latin America made up the periphery. Many societies (especially in Oceania and the interior regions of Africa and Asia) were until recently outside the periphery. For a long time they could not join the world capitalist economy, producing and consuming their own products, that is, engaging in subsistence farming. Today, there are virtually no such countries. The countries of the former Soviet bloc (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, etc.) are classified as "second world" countries. For a long time they were fenced off from the world capitalist system. Now they are credited to the periphery or semi-periphery.

The theory of the nucleus and periphery of I. Wahlerstein, put forward in the 80s, is today considered in principle correct, but in need of a certain correction and addition. According to the new approach, the basis of the modern international community, which is sometimes referred to as the "transnational world", is made up of leading international organizations, 50-60 major financial and industrial blocs, as well as about 40 thousand TNCs. The "Global Economic Federation" is permeated with close economic, political and cultural ties. The largest Western corporations, creating branches all over the world, primarily in the third world countries, entangle the whole world with financial and commodity flows. They make different regions of the world economically dependent on each other.

In this global space, the post-industrial North, which controls trade and financial channels, the highly industrial West - the totality of the national economies of the leading industrialized developed countries, the intensively developing new East, building economic life within the framework of the neo-industrial model, the raw materials South, which lives mainly through the exploitation of natural resources, stand out, as well as the states of the post-communist world that are in a state of transition.

The movement of the world towards a new type of unification is called the geoeconomic or geopolitical restructuring of the planet. The new international space is characterized by two tendencies: a) concentration of making important strategic decisions in a small group of leading powers, such as the G7 (after Russia joined it, which became the G8), b) the erosion of centralized regions and formations into many independent points , the sovereignty of small states, increasing their role in the world community (for example, the events in Yugoslavia, Palestine, etc.). There is confrontation and misunderstanding between the two tendencies.

Important political and economic decisions made by a narrow circle of people can lead to serious consequences in different parts of the world, sometimes affecting the fate of the population of entire countries. An example is the influence of the United States on events in Yugoslavia, when America forced almost all European countries to join the military pressure on the Serbs. Although this decision itself is beneficial to a small handful of politicians in the US Congress.

The world community is immensely powerful. Before he applied economic sanctions to Iraq, a small part of its social structure was rich and just as poor. The general population lived at an average level even by European standards. And after a few years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class fell to the poor.

As the most powerful economic state in the world, the United States also behaves like a political monopoly. Dollars make a one-dollar-one-vote policy. Behind the decisions taken on behalf of international organizations, such as the Security Council, IMF, IBRD, WTO, again financed by developed countries, hide the intention and will of a narrow circle of leading powers.

Displaced to the political and economic periphery of the South, or developing countries, are fighting the hegemony of the superpowers with the means available to them. Some choose the model of civilized market development and, like Chile and Argentina, are rapidly catching up with the economically developed North and West. Others, due to various circumstances, deprived of such an opportunity, embark on the "warpath". They create branched criminal terrorist organizations and mafia formations scattered all over the world. Islamic fundamentalism, the Medellian cartel ...

In the new world order, everything is connected with everything. The world monetary and financial system, the strength of which is set by world leaders, primarily the United States, Germany, Japan, England, is no longer as stable as before. Financial crises on the periphery of this system, to which its whales may not have paid attention before, today shake the entire world system. Crisis 1997-1998 in Indonesia and Russia had a strong impact on financial exchanges around the world. Industrial giants have lost billions of dollars.

The world community is immensely powerful. Before he applied economic sanctions to Iraq, in the social structure of the latter, a small part was rich and just as poor. The general population lived at an average level even by European standards. And after a few years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class fell to the poor.

* In a narrow sense, society means:

a certain group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity,

specific stage in historical development any people or country,

a complex system of interaction between people, which has its own structure and institutions.

* The most complete list of necessary and sufficient features that must correspond to any social association that claims to be called a society was given by the famous American sociologist E. Shils.

the association is not part of any larger system (society);

marriages are concluded between representatives of this association;

it is replenished mainly at the expense of the children of those people who are already its recognized representatives;

the association has a territory that it considers its own;

it has its own name and its own history;

it has its own control system;

the association has existed longer average duration the life of an individual;

it is united by a common system of values ​​(customs, traditions, norms, laws, rules, morals), which is called culture.

• * Society is divided into four main areas - economic, political, social and cultural.
• * The economic sphere includes four main activities: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. It includes not only firms, enterprises, factories, banks, markets, but also flows of money and investments, capital turnover, and so on.
• * The political sphere is the president and the presidential apparatus, the government and parliament (Federal Assembly), its apparatus, local authorities (provincial, regional), the army, police, tax and customs service, which together make up the state, as well as political parties not included in it.
• * Spiritual realm (culture, science, religion and education) includes universities and laboratories, museums and theaters, art galleries and research institutes, magazines and newspapers, cultural monuments and national art treasures, religious communities, etc.
• * The social sphere covers classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relations and interactions with each other. It is understood in two senses - broad and narrow.

The social sphere of society in a broad sense is a set of organizations and institutions responsible for the well-being of the population.

The social sphere in a narrow sense means only socially unprotected segments of the population and institutions serving them.

* One of the most complete and conceptually clear models of society was created in the middle of the 19th century by the great German thinker Karl Marx. According to his views, any society consists of a base and a superstructure.

The basis is the dialectical unity of the productive forces and production relations.

The superstructure includes ideology, culture, art, education, science, politics, religion, family.

• * As an ideal, civil society personifies an ideal society - a society of free, sovereign individuals endowed with the broadest civil and political rights, actively participating in government, freely expressing their thoughts, freely satisfying various needs: creating any organizations and parties aimed at protecting interests of these individuals.
• * Civil society as a reality coincides with civil society as an ideal only in one case - when the rule of law is established. It is based on the rule of law in society, the freedom of people, their equality in rights as innate human properties. Members of society voluntarily accept certain restrictions and undertake to obey general laws.
• * The totalitarian state is the basic concept of sociology. It is characterized by such features as:

suppression apparatus;

persecution of dissidents;

strict censorship and abolition of freedom of speech;

dictatorship of one political party;

monopoly of state property;

genocide against one's own people;

suppression of the individual, alienation from the state.

• * The global, world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from the state of savagery to the heights of civilization is called social progress.
• * Reform is a partial improvement in any area of ​​life, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the foundations of the existing social system.
• * Revolution - a complex change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing system. It is of an abrupt nature and represents the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.
• * According to their typology, societies are divided into closed and open, preliterate and written, primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist, preindustrial, industrial and postindustrial, stable and unstable, transitional and stable, stagnant and dynamically developing, wild barbaric and civilized and .d.
• * Modern sociology uses all typologies, combining them into some synthetic model. American sociologist Daniel Bell is considered its creator. He subdivided world history into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.
• * The development of human society successively goes through three stages, corresponding to three main types of society: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.
• * The transition from the primitive phase to the pre-industrial, or traditional society is called the Neolithic revolution, and from it to the industrial one - the industrial revolution.
• * Communities - associations of several groups of people connected by mutual marriages, labor cooperation and a common territory.
• * Chiefdom is a hierarchically organized system of people, in which there is no ramified administrative apparatus, which is an integral feature of a mature state.
• * Cattle breeding is a more efficient way of obtaining livelihoods based on the domestication of wild animals. Pastoralists, like hunters and gatherers, led a nomadic lifestyle.
• * Cultivation of plants is the process of converting wild plants into crops, which means the transition to agriculture.
• * With the emergence of the ancient Eastern states, we can talk about an important historical process - the transition from scattered communities, often at war with each other, to a cohesive, politically organized society.
• * Complex societies include those where surplus product, commodity-money relations, social inequality and social stratification (slavery, castes, estates, classes) appear, a specialized and widely branched administrative apparatus.
• * Agrarian society is a set of cities and suburban areas united by economic exchange.
• * Law - a set of generally binding rules of conduct (norms) established or sanctioned by the state.
• * Signs of complex societies:

resettlement of people in cities;

development of non-agricultural labor specialization;

the emergence and accumulation of a surplus product;

the emergence of clear class distances;

transition from customary law to legal laws;

the emergence of the practice of large-scale public works such as irrigation and pyramid building;

the emergence of international trade;

the emergence of writing, mathematics and culture.

• * The generalized formula of a complex society can be expressed as follows: state, stratification, civilization.
• * The modern concept of society was formed in European culture not earlier than the 17th - 18th centuries. At the end of the 18th century, the concept of "civil society" emerged. It described the morals and customs of the entire people, the initiative and self-government of the population, and finally, participation in the political life of ordinary people, not directed by the state, but arising spontaneously.
• * Industrialization - the application of scientific knowledge to industrial technology, the discovery of new sources of energy, allowing machines to do the work that people or draft animals used to do. The transition to industry was as significant a revolution for mankind as the transition to agriculture was in its time.
• * In a post-industrial society, the main role is played not by industry and production, but by science and technology.
• * An industrial society can be determined by the amount of goods produced, and a post-industrial society - by the ability to generate and transmit information.
• * Modernization is understood as a revolutionary transition from pre-industrial to industrial, or capitalist society, carried out through complex reforms stretched over time. It implies a radical change in social institutions and the way of life of people, covering all spheres of society.
• * Today the concept of "society" has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or all countries of the world. In this case, we must talk about the world community.
• * Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement between nations and peoples, between which traditional borders are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system.
• * The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties.