GMOs: benefit or harm? Genetically modified products and organisms. The legislative framework. History of GMOs Methods for creating GMOs

Now there are about 5 billion people living in the world. According to scientists, by the end of the century the world's population may increase to 10 billion.

One of the main problems facing humanity is the lack of food. Even now, with a population of 5 billion, people in some regions are starving. In this regard, the most productive biotechnologies are being introduced into agriculture. One of these technologies is genetic engineering, with the help of which genetically modified products are created.

The essence of genetic engineering is as follows. Any plant or animal has thousands of different characteristics. For example, in plants: the color of the leaves, the size of the seeds, the presence of a certain vitamin in the fruits, etc. A specific gene, which is a small piece of a DNA molecule and is responsible for the appearance of a specific characteristic of a plant or animal, is responsible for the presence of each specific trait. If you remove the gene responsible for the appearance of a certain trait, the trait itself will disappear. If you add, for example, a new gene, the plant will also have a new trait. A genetically altered plant can now be called a mutant. By the end of the twentieth century, experiments on artificial change (modification) of plants and animals became very widespread.

The first genetically modified product was the tomato. Its new property is the ability to lie unripe for months at a temperature of 12 degrees. But as soon as such a tomato is placed in heat, it becomes ripe in a few hours.

The United States plays a leading role in genetic engineering of products. 68% of all genetically modified products are produced there. They are followed by France and Canada. American corporations are conducting their experiments in Central and South America. The largest company is Monsanto.

The Americans have achieved changes in strawberries and tulips. A variety of genetically modified potatoes has been developed that absorbs less fat when fried. They are soon planning to produce giant cube-shaped tomatoes, so that they are easier to pack into boxes. The Swiss began to grow corn, which secretes its own poison against pests, and there are many such examples.

Similar developments are being carried out in Russia. Thus, at the Moscow Institute of Potato Growing, potatoes are produced with human blood interferon, which improves immunity. The Institute of Animal Husbandry has received a patent for a sheep whose milk contains rennet, which is necessary for cheese production. Experts say that when new technology cheese production, only 200 sheep will be enough to provide the whole of Russia with cheese.

There are many such examples. It is obvious that due to the ability to genetically modify products, humanity is on the verge of a real revolution in crop and livestock production, and in the 21st century there will be a large number of relatively inexpensive products. The report of the Commission on Agriculture of the Council of Europe states that genetically modified products will help support agriculture, which is especially important for developing countries.

Genetically modified foods: pros and cons

From the moment the first genetically modified product appeared, the history of confrontation between their opponents and supporters began. There is no clear advantage on either side.

The main argument of supporters of modified products is the characteristics of the vegetables, fruits, and grain crops themselves, improved by engineers. Genetically modified products are more resistant to all kinds of viruses and bacteria. They last longer. Previously, farmers used tons of chemicals to preserve their crops, now they can save money. In addition, these products can be resistant to both cold and heat, and they do not care about salty soils.

The goals of genetic technology applied to animals are usually to speed up and increase their growth. Cows with increased fat content in milk and salmon have been produced that grow very quickly and do not need to migrate from seawater to freshwater.

Today there are several hundred genetically modified products. For several years now, modified products have been consumed by millions of people in most countries of the world. Perhaps you, dear reader, have already eaten more than one kilogram of genetically modified foods without knowing it.

Transgenes were found in products that contain soy protein, including sausages. Russia imports soybeans from countries where the cultivation of genetically modified soybeans has long been permitted. In America and Canada, in fact, there are no traditional varieties left; they are all produced at the genetic level. Every year our country purchases about 400 thousand tons of genetically modified soy protein.

If genetic manipulations are carried out under the control of official bodies, then such products can be considered completely safe. By making changes to the gene code of a plant or animal, scientists are doing the same thing that nature itself does. Absolutely all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, are the result of mutations and natural selection. But if nature takes millennia to form new species, scientists carry out this process in a few years. There is no fundamental difference, the question is the timing of the experiments.

However, there are many opponents of genetically modified products. There is even an organization called Doctors and Scientists Against Genetically Modified Food. If we discard the ethical issues in the production of these products, which some consider as an unnatural intervention in the nature created by God, then opponents of modified products will still have a lot of arguments.

They say that genetic engineering is not perfect now. She is not able to control the process of inserting a new gene. Therefore, it is impossible to predict the insertion site and the effects of the added gene. Even if the location of a gene can be determined after its insertion into the genome, the available knowledge about the functioning of DNA is still very incomplete to predict the consequences. As a result of the artificial addition of a foreign gene, hazardous substances may unexpectedly be formed. In the worst case, it could be toxic substances, allergens or other elements harmful to health.

It has not yet been proven that organisms modified by genetic engineering will not have a harmful effect on the environment. Environmentalists have suggested various potential environmental complications. For example, there are many opportunities for the uncontrolled spread of potentially harmful genes used by genetic engineering, including gene transfer by bacteria and viruses. Complications caused by the environment are likely to be impossible to correct, since the released genes cannot be taken back.

Opponents refute talk that these developments will help feed all of humanity with specific data: now such products rather satisfy purely commercial interests. No significant results have been achieved in the fight against hunger in developing countries using modified foods. Genetically modified products, designed to solve the problem of hunger in many developing countries, have so far appeared only on the shelves of developed countries. However, residents of these countries prefer natural products, since the possible negative consequences of eating artificially improved plants or animals have not yet been fully clarified.

Public opinion is generally against modified products. Under pressure from public organizations, some states have passed laws to stop research in this area, many have introduced separate certification for these products, and obligated manufacturers to indicate the origin of the products on packaging. Naturally, the demand for modified products fell sharply. No matter how hard the Monsanto company tried, for example, which spent about a million dollars on promoting its products, the result was practically zero.

Then companies began to lobby their interests in the parliaments and supreme executive authorities of their countries. The USA has never introduced restrictions; modified products are sold there on an equal basis with ordinary ones. Now the same thing is happening in New Zealand and Australia. Europe is seriously thinking about abolishing mandatory labeling.

Since 1996, Russia has had a law regulating activities in the field of genetic engineering. According to this document, imported products containing genetically modified components must undergo certification and safety tests in Russian scientific institutes. After this, they can be introduced into widespread consumption. According to the law, in the summer of 1999 the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation issued the first license for the import of genetically modified products. The first sign was soybeans from Monsanto. In September 1999, a government decree was issued according to which, from July 2000, all products containing GM components must be labeled. However, control mechanisms for the implementation of the resolution do not yet exist.

Most likely, after the repeal of laws and regulations requiring manufacturers to notify consumers about the origin of the product, the modified samples will merge with the traditional ones, and no one will be able to say with certainty what he eats. People will simply be forced to buy “improved” products. It is hoped that research into the possible harmful effects of modified foods on the human body will continue. They will be called upon to resolve all disputes.

What is GMO? Genetically modified organism ( GMO) - a living organism, the genetic component of which has been artificially changed using genetic engineering methods. Typically, such changes are used for scientific or agricultural purposes. Genetic modification ( GM) differs from natural mutagenesis, characteristic of artificial and natural mutagenesis, by targeted intervention in a living organism.

The main type of production currently is the introduction of transgenes.

From the history.

Appearance GMO was due to the discovery and creation of the first recombinant bacteria in 1973. This led to controversy in the scientific community, to the emergence of potential risks posed by genetic engineering, which were discussed in detail at the 1975 Asilomar Conference. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant research should be established. DNA so that this technology can be considered safe. Herbert Boyer then founded the first company using recombinant technology DNA(Genentech) and in 1978 the company announced the creation of a product that produces human insulin.

In 1986, field tests on genetically engineered bacteria that would protect plants from frost developed by a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of Oakland, California, were repeatedly delayed by biotechnology opponents.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, guidance for assessing the safety of genetically engineered plants and foods emerged from the FAO and WHO.

In the late 1980s, small-scale experimental production of genetically modified ( GM) plants. The first approvals for large-scale, commercial cultivation were given in the mid-1990s. Since that time, the number of farmers around the world using it has been increasing every year.

Problems solved by the emergence of GMOs.

Appearance GMO is considered by scientists as one of the species for plant and animal breeding. Other scientists believe that Genetic Engineering- a dead-end branch of classical selection, because GMO is not a product of artificial selection, namely the systematic and long-term cultivation of a new variety (species) of a living organism through natural reproduction, and in fact is a new one artificially created in the laboratory organism.

In most cases, use GMO significantly increases productivity. There is an opinion that at the current rate of growth of the world's population only GMO can cope with the threat of famine, because in this way the yield and quality of food can be significantly increased. Other scientists who are opponents of GMOs believe that the existing developed technologies for breeding new varieties of plants and animals and cultivating the land are capable of feeding the rapidly increasing population of the planet.

Methods for obtaining GMOs.
Sequence of creation of GM samples:
1. Growing the required gene.
2. Introduction of this gene into the DNA of the donor organism.
3. Transfer DNA with gene into projectable organism.
4. Engraftment of cells in the body.
5. Screening out modified organisms that have not undergone successful modification.

Now the gene production process is well established and in most cases automated. Special laboratories have been developed in which, using computer-controlled devices, the processes of synthesis of the necessary nucleotide sequences are controlled. Such devices reproduce segments DNA in length up to 100-120 nitrogenous bases (oligonucleotides).

To paste the received gene into the vector (donor organism), enzymes are used - ligases and restriction enzymes. Using restriction enzymes, the vector and gene can be cut into individual pieces. With the help of ligases, similar pieces can be “spliced”, combined in a completely different combination, thereby creating a completely new gene or introducing it into the donor organism.

The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was adopted by genetic engineering after a certain Frederick Griffith discovered bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on the normal sexual process, which is accompanied by the exchange of small amount fragments between plasmids and non-chromosomal DNA. Plasmid technology formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells.

To introduce the resulting gene into the genome of animal and plant cells, the process of transfection is used. After modification of unicellular or multicellular organisms, the cloning stage begins, that is, the process of selecting organisms and their descendants that have successfully undergone genetic modification. If it is necessary to obtain multicellular organisms, then the altered cells as a result of genetic modification are used in plants as vegetative propagation; in animals they are introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother. As a result, offspring are born with a changed gene profile or not, those that have the expected characteristics are again selected and again crossed with each other until stable offspring appear.

Use of GMOs.

Application of GMOs in science.

Now genetically modified organisms are widely used in applied and fundamental research. scientific research. With their help, the patterns of occurrence and development of diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, regeneration and aging processes are studied, processes taking place in the nervous system are studied, and other problems that are relevant in medicine and biology are solved.

Application of GMOs in medicine.

Since 1982, genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine. This year, human insulin, produced using β-bacteria, was registered as a medicine.

Currently underway research upon receipt using GM- plant medicines and vaccines against diseases such as plague and HIV. Proinsulin obtained from GM safflower is being tested. A drug for thrombosis obtained from the milk of genetically modified goats has been successfully tested and approved for use. Got very rapid development such a branch of medicine as gene therapy. This area of ​​medicine is based on the modification of the genome of human somatic cells. Now gene therapy is the main method of combating a number of diseases. For example, back in 1999, every 4th child with severe combined immune deficiency was successfully treated with gene therapy. It is also planned to use gene therapy as one of the ways to combat the aging process.

Use of GMOs in agriculture.

In agriculture Genetic Engineering used to create new varieties of plants that tolerate drought, low temperatures resistant to pests, with better taste and growth qualities. The resulting new breeds of animals are characterized by increased productivity and accelerated growth. At the moment, new varieties of plants have already been created that are distinguished by the highest calorie content and the content of the required amount of microelements for the human body. New breeds of genetically modified trees are being tested, which have a higher cellulose content and rapid growth.

Other uses of GMOs.

Plants are already being developed that could be used as biofuels.

At the beginning of 2003, the first genetically modified organism– GloFish, created for aesthetic purposes. Thanks only to genetic engineering, the extremely popular aquarium fish Danio rerio has acquired several fluorescent stripes bright colors on your belly.

In 2009 it goes on sale new variety“Applause” roses with blue petals. With the advent of these roses, the dream of many breeders who unsuccessfully tried to breed roses with blue petals came true.

Definition of GMO

Purposes of creating GMOs

Methods for creating GMOs

Application of GMOs

GMOs - arguments for and against

The advantages of genetically modified organisms

The dangers of genetically modified organisms

Laboratory research of GMOs

Consequences of consuming GM foods for human health

GMO safety studies

How is the production and sale of GMOs regulated in the world?

List of international producers found to be using GMOs

Genetically modified nutritional supplements and flavors

Conclusion

List of used literature

Definition of GMO

Genetically modified organisms- these are organisms in which the genetic material (DNA) has been changed in a way that is impossible in nature. GMOs can contain DNA fragments from any other living organisms.

The purpose of obtaining genetically modified organisms- improvement useful characteristics the original donor organism (resistance to pests, frost resistance, productivity, caloric content and others) to reduce the cost of products. As a result, there are now potatoes that contain the genes of an earthen bacterium that kills the Colorado potato beetle, drought-resistant wheat that has been implanted with a scorpion gene, tomatoes with flounder genes, and soybeans and strawberries with bacterial genes.

Those plant species can be called transgenic (genetically modified), in which a gene (or genes) transplanted from other plant or animal species functions successfully. This is done so that the recipient plant receives new properties convenient for humans, increased resistance to viruses, herbicides, pests and plant diseases. Food products obtained from such genetically modified crops may taste better, look better and last longer.

Also, such plants often produce a richer and more stable harvest than their natural counterparts.

Genetically modified product- this is when a gene from one organism isolated in the laboratory is transplanted into the cell of another. Here are examples from American practice: to make tomatoes and strawberries more frost-resistant, they are “implanted” with genes from northern fish; To prevent corn from being eaten by pests, it can be “injected” with a very active gene obtained from snake venom.

By the way, don't confuse the terms " modified" and "genetically modified" For example, modified starch, which is part of most yoghurts, ketchups and mayonnaises, has nothing to do with GMO products. Modified starches are starches that humans have improved for their needs. This can be done either physically (exposure to temperature, pressure, humidity, radiation) or chemically. In the second case, chemicals are used that are approved by the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation as food additives.

Purposes of creating GMOs

The development of GMOs is considered by some scientists as a natural development of work on the selection of animals and plants. Others, on the contrary, consider genetic engineering a complete departure from classical selection, since GMO is not a product of artificial selection, that is, the gradual development of a new variety (breed) of organisms through natural reproduction, but in fact artificially synthesized in the laboratory the new kind.

In many cases, the use of transgenic plants greatly increases yields. There is an opinion that with the current size of the planet's population, only GMOs can save the world from the threat of hunger, since with the help of genetic modification it is possible to increase the yield and quality of food.

Opponents of this opinion believe that with the modern level of agricultural technology and mechanization of agricultural production, plant varieties and animal breeds that already exist now, obtained in the classical way, are capable of fully providing the planet's population with high-quality food (the problem of possible world hunger is caused exclusively by socio-political reasons, and therefore can be solved not by geneticists, but by the political elites of states.

Types of GMOs

The origins of plant genetic engineering lie in the discovery in 1977 that made it possible to use soil microorganism Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a tool for introducing potentially beneficial foreign genes into other plants.

The first field trials of genetically modified crops resulted in a tomato resistant to viral diseases, were carried out in 1987.

In 1992, China began to grow tobacco that was “not afraid” of harmful insects. In 1993, genetically modified products were allowed on store shelves around the world. But the mass production of modified products began in 1994, when tomatoes appeared in the United States that did not spoil during transportation.

Today, GMO products occupy more than 80 million hectares of farmland and are grown in more than 20 countries around the world.

GMOs combine three groups of organisms:

ogenetically modified microorganisms (GMM);

genetically modified animals (GMFA);

Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are the most common group.

Today in the world there are several dozen lines of GM crops: soybeans, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, rice, tomatoes, rapeseed, wheat, melon, chicory, papaya, zucchini, cotton, flax and alfalfa. GM soybeans are being grown en masse, which in the USA have already replaced conventional soybeans, corn, canola and cotton. Crops of transgenic plants are constantly increasing. In 1996, 1.7 million hectares were occupied in the world under crops of transgenic plant varieties, in 2002 this figure reached 52.6 million hectares (of which 35.7 million hectares were in the USA), in 2005 GMO- There were already 91.2 million hectares of crops, in 2006 - 102 million hectares.

In 2006, GM crops were grown in 22 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, USA. The world's main producers of products containing GMOs are the USA (68%), Argentina (11.8%), Canada (6%), China (3%). More than 30% of the world's soybeans, more than 16% of cotton, 11% of canola (an oilseed plant) and 7% of corn are produced using genetic engineering.

There is not a single hectare on the territory of the Russian Federation that has been sown with transgenes.

Methods for creating GMOs

The main stages of creating GMOs:

1. Obtaining an isolated gene.

2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body.

3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism.

4. Transformation of body cells.

5. Selection of genetically modified organisms and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.

The process of gene synthesis is now very well developed and even largely automated. There are special devices equipped with computers, in the memory of which programs for the synthesis of various nucleotide sequences are stored. This apparatus synthesizes DNA segments up to 100-120 nitrogen bases in length (oligonucleotides).

To insert the gene into the vector, enzymes are used - restriction enzymes and ligases. Using restriction enzymes, the gene and vector can be cut into pieces. With the help of ligases, such pieces can be “glued together”, combined in a different combination, constructing a new gene or enclosing it in a vector.

The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was developed after Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on a primitive sexual process, which in bacteria is accompanied by the exchange of small fragments of non-chromosomal DNA, plasmids. Plasmid technologies formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells. To introduce a finished gene into the hereditary apparatus of plant and animal cells, the process of transfection is used.

If unicellular organisms or multicellular cell cultures are subject to modification, then at this stage cloning begins, that is, the selection of those organisms and their descendants (clones) that have undergone modification. When the task is to obtain multicellular organisms, cells with an altered genotype are used for vegetative propagation of plants or introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother when it comes to animals. As a result, cubs are born with a changed or unchanged genotype, among which only those that exhibit the expected changes are selected and crossed with each other.

Application of GMOs

Use of GMOs for scientific purposes.

Currently, genetically modified organisms are widely used in fundamental and applied scientific research. With the help of GMOs, the patterns of development of certain diseases (Alzheimer’s disease, cancer), the processes of aging and regeneration are studied, the functioning of nervous system, a number of other pressing problems of biology and medicine are being solved.

Use of GMOs for medical purposes.

Genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine since 1982. This year, human insulin produced using genetically modified bacteria was registered as a medicine.

Work is underway to create genetically modified plants that produce components of vaccines and medicines against dangerous infections (plague, HIV). Proinsulin obtained from genetically modified safflower is in clinical trials. A drug against thrombosis based on protein from the milk of transgenic goats has been successfully tested and approved for use.

A new branch of medicine is rapidly developing - gene therapy. It is based on the principles of creating GMOs, but the object of modification is the genome of human somatic cells. Currently, gene therapy is one of the main methods of treating certain diseases. Thus, already in 1999, every fourth child suffering from SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) was treated with gene therapy. In addition to being used in treatment, gene therapy is also proposed to be used to slow down the aging process.