Pavel Borisovich Axelrod: biography. Biography Pavel Borisovich Axelrod

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True internationalists: Kautsky, Axelrod, Martov

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Vinnik Pavel Borisovich (Interview with A. Drabkin)

Vinnik Pavel Borisovich (Interview with A. Drabkin) rifleman of the 1374th Infantry Regiment of the 416th Azerbaijani Infantry Division We crossed the Oder across the ice near Küstrin. We repelled two very strong German attacks, and there, near Küstrin, my first hand-to-hand combat took place. Exactly

Plan
Introduction
1 Childhood and youth
2 Populist period of revolutionary activity (1872-1883)
3 Participation in the “Emancipation of Labor” group (1883-1903)
4 1902-1917
5 1917-1928
6 Personal life, family
7 Essays
7.1 Memories
7.2 Main articles and books
7.3 Collections


8.1 Bibliography
1910s - 1930s
8.3 Modern literature

9 Archival funds

Axelrod, Pavel Borisovich

Introduction

Pavel Borisovich Axelrod (1849 or 1850, Pochep, Mglinsky district, Chernigov province - April 16, 1928, Berlin) - Russian social democrat.

In the 1870s - a populist, a member of "Land and Freedom" (1876-1879), after its split - a member of the Black Revolution. In 1883-1903, a member of the Marxist group “Emancipation of Labor”. Since 1900, one of the editors of the newspapers Iskra and Zarya. Subsequently - one of the leaders of the Menshevik Party, the ideologist of the Menshevik movement. He wrote a number of works promoting Marxism.

In 1917, a member of the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, actively supported the Provisional Government. After the October Revolution - in exile. One of the leaders of the Second International, a supporter of reformism, an opponent of Soviet power, even to the point of calling for armed intervention.

1. Childhood and youth

Pavel Borisovich Axelrod (named in the Police Department file by Borukh Pinkhus son Ioselev) was born into the family of a Jewish shinkar in a village near Pochep. By class status - tradesman. The exact date of his birth is unknown; he himself indicated only that he was born around 1850, sooner rather than later.

In 1859, the Axelrod family moved to Shklov, where the father found himself in the position of a laborer. Lack of funds led to Axelrod entering a school to teach Russian literacy to Jewish children. In 1863 he entered the Mogilev gymnasium, from which he successfully graduated. The environment in which he grew up had a great influence on the future revolutionary. Raised on the ideals of humanism, social justice, atheism and Jewish enlightenment, he was limited in his social circle, which almost did not extend beyond the Jewish community of Shklov (later Mogilev). The surrounding Orthodox population was a hostile environment (the exception was N.I. Khlebnikov, a history teacher at the Mogilev gymnasium, who had a great influence on Paul), which determined Axelrod’s first steps in the field of social activity.

The beginning of Axelrod’s socio-political activity is associated with the liberal movement of Jewish enlightenment, the main goal of which was the equalization of Jews in rights with the Orthodox through their Europeanization, that is, familiarization with European and primarily Russian culture. First of all, we were talking about basic literacy training. The movement was not anti-government; on the contrary, it was focused on the “good king”.

The turning point in Axelrod’s views was his acquaintance with the works of F. Lassalle and other authors devoted to the revolutionary events of the mid-19th century in Europe. Axelrod came to the idea that the “Jewish question” could only be resolved within the framework of a more general “work question.” This turn dates back to 1872. He led Axelrod to the revolutionary struggle. At the same time, in the summer of 1872, Axelrod was transferred from the Nizhyn Lyceum to the Kiev University of St. Vladimir.

Populist period of revolutionary activity (1872-1883)

At Kiev University, Axelrod immediately found himself among the emerging circle of the “Great Propaganda Society” (the circle of “Tchaikovites”, named after the surname of the leader, N.V. Tchaikovsky) and took a prominent position in it. At this time (1873) Axelrod became acquainted with the works of P. L. Lavrov, who had a great influence on him, and M. A. Bakunin.

In the summer of 1874, Axelrod took part in “going to the people” in the Poltava, Chernigov and Mogilev provinces, conducting propaganda work among the peasants. At the end of August - September, mass arrests of “Chaikovsky” members took place. Axelrod and his comrades were detained by the village headman in the Mogilev province, but escaped, crossed the border and ended up in exile. Axelrod’s name was repeatedly mentioned in the indictment for the “Case of Propaganda in the Empire” (“trial of 193”), which brought him fame in populist circles.

Abroad, P. B. Axelrod first lived in Berlin, and in the winter of 1874/75 he moved to Geneva. Here he joined the group of Social Democrats who published the newspaper “Rabotnik” (Z.K. Arbore-Rally, N.I. Zhukovsky, N.A. Morozov, S.M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, etc.). On the instructions of the editors, Axelrod spent the winter of 1875/76 and the spring of 1876 illegally in Russia, first in the south of the country, and then in St. Petersburg. Here an acquaintance took place with the leaders of the then-formed organization “Land and Freedom” M. A. Nathanson, S. L. Perovskaya and G. A. Lopatin. At the same time, Axelrod met G.V. Plekhanov, a student at the Mining Institute.

The St. Petersburg populists and the Rabotnika group agreed to jointly publish the magazine “Community,” the editorial board of which included Arbore-Ralli, Zhukovsky, Axelrod, S. M. Kravchinsky, L. G. Deich, and D. A. Clements. The magazine was published in 1878-1879, it contained Axelrod’s first articles, which created his reputation as a talented writer.

At this time, a rethinking of the tasks and tactics of the revolutionary struggle took place: Axelrod came to the conclusion that “going to the people” is a pilgrimage of “believing but frivolous children to holy places” and its results are insignificant. Axelrd's views gradually changed, becoming social democratic from populist. This transformation is evidenced by his articles, which at that time were devoted primarily to the “labor issue.”

In 1879, a congress of “Land and Freedom” was held in Voronezh, dividing it into “People’s Will” and “Black Redistribution”. After some hesitation, Axelrod joined the “Black Redistribution” and moved again to St. Petersburg, becoming, after the forced departure abroad of the organization’s leadership led by G. V. Plekhanov, one of the leaders of the “Black Redistribution” in Russia. He tried to create a “broad socialist organization” that would unite revolutionaries of different directions, but this plan turned out to be unviable.

In 1880, the “Black Peredel” circles were shaken by a series of arrests. Axelrod left for Romania, and subsequently, when the Romanian authorities expelled Russian emigrants from the country, he fled and again ended up in Geneva (1881). Here, since a difficult financial situation forced him to look for various sources of income, he (on the recommendation of P.L. Lavrov) began to collaborate in the newspaper “Volnoye Slovo”, publishing in it regular “Letters about the labor movement” and “Chronicles of the labor movement”.

In order to be closer to the events and persons described, Axelrod moved to Zurich, the center of German Social Democratic emigration. Here he became close friends with the leaders of German Social Democracy E. Bernstein and K. Kautsky. Axelrod's ideas quickly evolved towards the growing strength of Marxism. There is a final break with populism and the direction of “Narodnaya Volya”.

Participation in the “Liberation of Labor” group (1883-1903)

In September 1883, together with G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich and others, P.B. Axelrod founded the “Emancipation of Labor” group, whose leader was Plekhanov. It was the first properly Marxist and social democratic organization that emerged in Switzerland among revolutionary emigrants from Russia.

In the fall of 1884, the Emancipation of Labor group began publishing a series of books under the general title “Workers' Library.” The first book in the new series was Axelrod’s voluminous pamphlet “The Labor Movement and Social Democracy,” which was a presentation of the main tenets of Marxism without regard to Russian conditions.

Axelrod believed that the conquest of political power by the working class is impossible “without a bloody struggle,” but it must be preceded by long preparatory work, including the experience of parliamentarism for the workers’ party.

In August 1888, the group published the collection “Social Democrat,” in which Axelrod acted as editor and one of the authors. Subsequently, the “Emancipation of Labor” group returned to the idea of ​​this collection and, as funds were found, four more issues of the “Literary and Political Review “Social Democrat”” were published (in 1890-1892).

In connection with the intensification of the social movement in Russia in 1891-92, which was caused, among other things, by famine and the cholera epidemic, Axelrod came up with a plan to unite the efforts of the liberal and social democratic movements in the fight against autocracy, associated with the creation of the “Society for the Fight against Hunger” " To implement this project, Axelrod tried to attract Russian emigration in Paris (led by P. L. Lavrov), London (“Free Russian Press Foundation” - S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, N. V. Tchaikovsky, etc.), Geneva (edition of “Free Russia” - V.L. Burtsev and others) and other organizations. In Zurich, to organize the “Society,” an inter-party circle of student youth was created, led by Axelrod’s brother-in-law Ya. M. Kalmanson. Overall, the idea was not a success, but it helped overcome the initial isolation of the Emancipation of Labor group.

From the turn of the 1880s - 1890s it begins new period in the activities of “Liberation of Labor”. Since 1889, it was constantly represented at the congresses of the “International Association of Workers’ Parties” (II International), then ties were restored with the Social Democratic circles that were gaining strength in Russia

Axelrod managed to solve his financial problems by starting his own small kefir production company in the mid-80s. By the end of the 90s, it began to generate a stable income, which allowed Axelrod and his family not only to provide for their own life, but also to provide material support to other revolutionaries. In 1908, the Axelrod-Kefir company, which had three branches - in Zurich, Geneva and Basel, was sold in exchange for a pension to its creator by the new owner.

4. 1902-1917

Axelrod, along with G.V. Plekhanov became one of the first Russian theorists of Marxism. He was a member of the editorial board of Iskra, a participant in the discussion of the draft program of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) in April 1902. Axelrod believed that in Russia “the industrial proletariat, in its constituent elements and conditions of existence, is to a high degree connected with the countryside”, that “the task of Russian Social Democrats acquiring adherents, direct or indirect allies among the non-proletarian classes, is solved first of all and mainly by character propaganda activities among the proletariat itself." Lenin in his work “What is to be done?” (1902) noted Axelrod’s “remarkable foresight,” but later their paths diverged, especially after Axelrod, together with Plekhanov, challenged Lenin’s proposals on the agrarian question, and supported Martov in the discussion about party membership. It was Axelrod, in articles published at the end of 1903 - beginning of 1904 in the new Iskra, who first pointed out the danger of the RSDLP turning into a Jacobin, conspiratorial type of organization. In Lenin’s ideas, he saw a “utopia of a theocratic nature” generated by the backwardness of Russia, a manifestation of “petty-bourgeois radicalism” using the struggle of the working class for its own purposes.

Since 1900, Axelrod has been one of the editors of the newspapers Iskra and Zarya. Subsequently - one of the leaders of the Menshevik Party, the ideologist of the Menshevik movement. He wrote a number of works promoting Marxism.

From the moment the Menshevik wing of the RSDLP was formed, Axelrod became its informal leader. In 1905, he opposed the establishment of the “dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry” and the boycott of the elections to the First State Duma. At the Third Stockholm Party Congress (1905), Axelrod condemned the revolutionary maximalism of the Bolsheviks, emphasizing its detrimental effect on the position of both liberals and the bourgeoisie as a whole, leading to their premature turn to the right. Later, Axelrod substantiated liquidationism by putting forward the idea of ​​an All-Russian workers' congress and the creation of a legal workers' party. At the Vienna Conference of the RSDLP in August 1912, he was elected a member of the Foreign Secretariat of the Organizing Committee of the RSDLP. In contrast to the Bolshevik part of the party, the Menshevik part began to be called the RSDLP (united).

With the outbreak of the First World War, Axelrod did not hide his sympathies for the Entente and tried to find an explanation for the position of the European social democratic parties that voted to support their own governments in the “centuries-old traditions of patriotism.” Subsequently, he proposed a plan for an “international struggle for peace”: pressure from workers on the leadership of their parties to jointly resolve the issue of recalling socialists from governments and refusing to vote for war loans. The Zimmerwald (1915) and Kienthal (1916) international socialist conferences were considered by him as “private international meetings” to overcome the psychological difficulties of bringing together socialist parties separated by the war and preventing the penetration of “Leninist propaganda for the split” into Western European social democracy, for which Lenin called him “the leader Russian Kautskyites." In the fight against Lenin’s idea of ​​​​transforming the imperialist war into a civil war, he, together with Martov, achieved the key formulation for the Zimmerwald majority about the need to achieve a “general peace treaty without annexations and indemnities.”

5. 1917-1928

The February Revolution found Axelrod in Zurich. He returned to Russia on May 9 along with a group of emigrants along the same route (in a sealed carriage through Germany) as Lenin and Zinoviev had arrived before. In one of his first interviews, Axelrod emphasized that “the current revolution is not purely proletarian, but also bourgeois,” and therefore “it is harmful to demand the overthrow of the bourgeois government,” the Provisional Government needs support “with the broad participation of representatives of the proletariat in all sectors of public and state activities and daily organic work on the democratization of all areas of national life.” Within the limits “determined by the bourgeois character of the revolution,” this support “will be the mutual support of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat and the joint cleansing of the Augean stables of overthrown tsarism.” He considered the entry of socialists into the government “fundamentally undesirable.” In Petrograd, Axelrod became a member of the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet.

The May All-Russian Conference of the RSDLP(o) elected Axelrod as a member of the Organizing Committee (OC), at the very first meeting of which he was elected its chairman. Axelrod took part in the discussion of questions about the organization of the campaign for peace and the progress of preparations for the convening of the international socialist conference, the report of I.G. Tsereteli on the foreign policy of the coalition Provisional Government, supported the proposal to cease activities State Duma and the State Council, spoke in favor of contact with the ministers - delegates of the party, for their report to the OK. Axelrod was delegated from the OK to the Bureau for convening the unification (August) congress of the RSDLP for the third Zimmerwald Conference. Due to personal circumstances (due to illness and soon the death of his daughter), he went abroad to prepare for the conference (it took place in September) later than others (at the very beginning of August) and never returned to Russia. The August (1917) unification congress of the RSDLP elected him in absentia as chairman of the party and head of its foreign representation.

Axelrod condemned the Bolsheviks' coming to power in October 1917. Since the summer of 1918, he declared the degeneration of the “dictatorship of the proletariat” into counter-revolution and considered the “Bolshevik coup” “a colossal crime and nothing else.” Axelrod never renounced this assessment of his, although it differed significantly from the assessment given by the new party leadership elected at the Extraordinary Unification Congress of the RSDLP in December 1917.

According to Axelrod, following from all the theoretical constructions of the official Menshevik leaders, as well as their Western European associates, the assessment of the Bolshevik dictatorship served as “the theoretical basis for authorizing the Bolshevik regime.” He categorically objected to declaring what happened in Russia “a step forward in social development”, attributing “to the historical asset” of the Bolsheviks the conquests “in the field of the emancipation of Russia from imperialist tutelage, the overthrow of the rule of the propertied classes and the radical elimination of the remnants of serfdom” and believed that, by forcibly interrupting the revolutionary development of the country, they threw it “back - economically a little not in the middle of the last century, but politically - partly to the time of Peter the Great, and partly to Ivan the Terrible.”

The April theses of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (1920) and a number of other official party documents prompted Axelrod to turn to the new party leader Yu.O. Martov with an open letter, which he considered as a kind of political testament. The first publication of the letter in exile dates back to the spring of 1921. In Russia, before 1999, the letter was published only once - in the spring of 1923 by the Petrograd group of “right” Mensheviks. Directed against the “legend of the great proletarian and communist mission of Bolshevism,” it became an event not only for Russian, but also for international social democracy. An old, sick, but courageous man, Axelrod remained the moral standard and coordination center for all Menshevik party groups and movements abroad. He cannot be classified as one of the representatives of “right” Menshevism who organizationally broke with the RSDLP back in 1917, since he always remained a member of the RSDLP and did not want to contribute to the internal party discord.

After the October Revolution - in exile. One of the leaders of the Second International, a supporter of reformism, an opponent of Soviet power, even to the point of calling for armed intervention.

6. Personal life, family

In 1875, in Geneva, P. B. Axelrod married his former student Nadezhda Ivanovna Kaminer, who came to him (the student Axelrod studied with her and her sister as a tutor). Despite the severe need that the young family experienced in the first years, the marriage turned out to be successful. Three children were born one after another: Vera (1876), Alexander (1879) and Sophia (1881). N. I. Axelrod-Kaminer died in 1905.

7. Essays

7.1. Memories

Akselrod P. B. Experienced and changed minds. - Berlin, 1923. - 236 p. (Full-text archive-1 (zip); Full-text archive-2 (zip))

7.2. Main articles and books

Presented in chronological order.

Akselrod P. B. Results of the Social Democratic Party in Germany. // Community. 1878-1879. No. 1-9.

Akselrod P. B. A transitional moment for our party. // Community. 1879. No. 9.

Akselrod P. B. Trade Unions. // Word. 1879. No. 1-2.

Akselrod P. B. Letters on the labor movement. (Letter 1-15) // Free speech. 1881-1882.

Akselrod P. B. Chronicles of the labor movement. (No. 1-12) // Free speech. 1881-1882.

Akselrod P. B. Everything for the people and through the people. // Free speech. 1881. No. 19 (October 19/November 1). (See also in the book: From the archives of P. B. Axelrod. 1880-1892. M., 2006.)

Akselrod P. B. On the tasks of the Jewish socialist intelligentsia. (See in the book: From the archives of P.B. Axelrod. 1880-1892. M., 2006.)

Akselrod P. B. George's teaching. // Case. 1883. No. IX-X. (See also in the book: From the archives of P. B. Axelrod. 1880-1892. M., 2006.)

Akselrod P. B. Socialism and the petty bourgeoisie. // Bulletin of “Narodnaya Volya”. 1883. No. 1. (See also in the book: From the archives of P. B. Axelrod. 1880-1892. M., 2006.)

Akselrod P. B. The labor movement and social democracy. Geneva, 1885.

Akselrod P. B. The labor movement in the early 60s and now. // Social Democrat. 1888.

Akselrod P. B. The political role of social democracy and the last elections to the German Reichstag. // Social Democrat. Book 1-4. 1890-92.

Akselrod P. B. Letters to Russian workers about the liberation movement of the proletariat (Letter one: Tasks of the workers' intelligentsia in Russia). // Socialist. 1889. No. 1. (See also in the book: From the archives of P. B. Axelrod. 1880-1892. M., 2006.)

Akselrod P. B. The working class and the revolutionary movement in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1907.

7.3. Collections

From the archive of P. B. Axelrod. 1881-1896 Berlin., 1924. (Full-text archive /rar/)

Letters from P. Axelrod to Yu. Martov. Berlin, 1924;

Correspondence between G.V. Plekhanov and P.B. Axelrod. T. 1-2. M-Pg., 1925.

Die russische Revolution und sozialistische Internationale. Aus dem literaturishen Nachlass von P. B. Axelrod. Jena, 1932.

From the archive of P. B. Axelrod. Vol. 1: 1880-1892 M., 2006.

Literature

8.1. Bibliography

"Liberation of Labor" group. Bibliography for 50 years. M., 1934.

Burgina A. M. Social-democratic Menshevik literature: Bibl. uk. Stanford, 1968.

Literature 1910s - 1930s

Bernstein E. Pavel Axelrod is an internationalist. // Socialist Bulletin. 1925. No. 15-16.

Kautsky K. What Axelrod gave us // Socialist Herald. 1925. No. 15/16.

Potresov A. N. P. B. Axelrod (45 years of public activity). St. Petersburg, 1914.

In memory of P. B. Axelrod. // Socialist Bulletin, 1928, No. 8/9.

Tsereteli I. G. P. B. Axelrod. // Socialist Bulletin, 1928, No. 8/9.

8.3. Modern literature

Asher A. Pavel Axelrod and the Development of Menshevism. Cambridge-Mass., 1972.

Maksimova T. O. Axelrod. // Political figures of Russia, 1917: Biographical Dictionary. M., 1993.

Nenarokov A. P. The last emigration of Pavel Axelrod. M., 2001.

Rosenthal I. S. Axelrod. // Political parties of Russia. The end of the 19th - the first third of the 20th century. Encyclopedia. M., 1996.

Reichtsaum A. A. Axelrod. // Domestic history: Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 1994.

Savelyev P. Yu. P. B. Axelrod. // Social thought Russia XVIII- beginning of the 20th century. Encyclopedia. M., 2005.

Savelyev P. Yu. P. B. Axelrod: man and politician (1849? - 1928) // New and recent history. 1998. № 2, 3.

9. Archival funds

State Archives Russian Federation(GARF). Fund 1770 (P.B. Axelrod), 1 op., 13 units. chronicle, 1891-1917.

Russian state archive socio-political history (RGASPI). Fund 361 (P.B. Axelrod), 1 op, 36 units. chronicle, 1876-1927.

International Institute of Social History (Amsterdam). Pavel Borisovič Aksel’rod Papers. (1858, 1870), 1879-1929.

Hoover Institution Archives. Collection of B.I. Nikolaevsky.

GARF. F. 102: DP OO. 1898 Op. 226. D. 6. Part 968. L. 1.

1849 - April 16, 1928

Russian social democrat

In the 1870s - a populist, a member of "Land and Freedom" (1876-1879), after its split - a member of the Black Revolution. In 1883-1903, a member of the Marxist group “Emancipation of Labor”. Since 1900, one of the editors of the newspapers Iskra and Zarya. Subsequently - one of the leaders of the Menshevik Party, the ideologist of the Menshevik movement. He wrote a number of works promoting Marxism.

In 1917, he was a member of the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet and actively supported the Provisional Government. After the October Revolution - in exile. One of the leaders of the Second International, a supporter of reformism, an opponent of Soviet power, even to the point of calling for armed intervention.

Childhood and youth

Pavel Borisovich Axelrod (named in the Police Department file by Borukh Pinkhus son Ioselev) was born into the family of a Jewish shinkar in a village near Pochep. By class status - tradesman. The exact date of his birth is unknown; he himself indicated only that he was born around 1850, sooner rather than later.

In 1859, the Axelrod family moved to Shklov, where the father found himself in the position of a laborer. Lack of funds led to Axelrod entering a school to teach Russian literacy to Jewish children. In 1863 he entered the Mogilev gymnasium, from which he successfully graduated. The environment in which he grew up had a great influence on the future revolutionary. Raised on the ideals of humanism, social justice, atheism and Jewish enlightenment, he was limited in his social circle, which almost did not extend beyond the Jewish community of Shklov (later Mogilev). The surrounding Orthodox population was a hostile environment (the exception was N.I. Khlebnikov, a history teacher at the Mogilev gymnasium, who had a great influence on Paul), which determined Axelrod’s first steps in the field of social activity.

The beginning of Axelrod’s socio-political activity is associated with the liberal movement of Jewish enlightenment, the main goal of which was the equalization of Jews in rights with the Orthodox through their Europeanization, that is, familiarization with European and primarily Russian culture. First of all, we were talking about basic literacy training. The movement was not anti-government; on the contrary, it was focused on the “good king”.

The turning point in Axelrod’s views was his acquaintance with the works of F. Lassalle and other authors devoted to the revolutionary events of the mid-19th century in Europe. Axelrod came to the idea that the “Jewish question” could only be resolved within the framework of a more general “work question.” This turn dates back to 1872. He led Axelrod to the revolutionary struggle. At the same time, in the summer of 1872, Axelrod was transferred from the Nizhyn Lyceum to the Kiev University of St. Vladimir.

Populist period of revolutionary activity (1872-1883)

At Kiev University, Axelrod immediately found himself among the emerging circle of the “Great Propaganda Society” (the circle of “Tchaikovites”, named after the surname of the leader, N.V. Tchaikovsky) and took a prominent position in it. At this time (1873) Axelrod became acquainted with the works of P. L. Lavrov, who had a great influence on him, and M. A. Bakunin.

In the summer of 1874, Axelrod took part in “going to the people” in the Poltava, Chernigov and Mogilev provinces, conducting propaganda work among the peasants. At the end of August - September, mass arrests of “Chaikovsky” members took place. Axelrod and his comrades were detained by the village headman in the Mogilev province, but escaped, crossed the border and ended up in exile. Axelrod’s name was repeatedly mentioned in the indictment for the “Case of Propaganda in the Empire” (“trial of 193”), which brought him fame in populist circles.