J.-B. Lamarck was of the opinion that different directions of the evolutionary process are controlled by different factors.

C. Darwin argued that behind all evolutionary events - the formation of adaptations, speciation, the progress of life forms, the extinction of species - there is one force - natural selection.

Due to the action of natural selection, in each generation individuals survive that have at least slightly more advanced adaptations to the environment than their competitors in the struggle for life.

Thus, according to C. Darwin, various adaptation, which invariably amazes the human imagination.

Charles Darwin was convinced that most acute The intraspecific struggle for existence is different: representatives of the same species are most similar to each other in terms of preferred humidity and light, nesting sites, food, etc. Severe intraspecific competition leads to the fact that extreme variants gain an advantage - individuals whose characteristics deviate from the original form in different directions. “The more variety in structure, general makeup and habits the descendants of a species acquire, the more easily they will be able to take possession of numerous and more varied places in the economy of nature, and consequently, the more easily they will increase in number.” Based on these arguments, we can conclude that divergence—the divergence of characters—prevails in evolution. Based on existing variability, varieties will first arise. As differences accumulate, varieties will turn into species, species into genera, etc. down to classes.

Charles Darwin believed that as a result of natural selection, “every creature exhibits a tendency to become more and more perfect in relation to the conditions surrounding it. This improvement inevitably leads to a gradual increase in organization...” Why then did higher organisms not supplant the lower ones during the evolution of the organic world? The lower forms of life, the scientist believed, were better adapted to very simple living conditions, where a high organization, due to its fragility, would be more likely to be upset and damaged.

Thus, As a result of a long evolutionary process, all organisms constantly develop and improve their adaptations to environmental conditions.

Fitness- one of the results of evolution, the interaction of its driving forces - heredity, variability, natural selection.

The second result of evolution is diversity of the organic world. Organisms preserved in the process of struggle for existence and natural selection constitute the entire organic world existing today. Mutation processes occurring over a series of generations lead to the emergence of new genetic combinations that are subject to the action of natural selection. It is natural selection that determines the nature of new adaptations, as well as the direction of the evolutionary process. As a result, organisms develop a variety of adaptations to life. Any adaptation arises as a result of long-term selection of random, phenotypically manifested mutations that are beneficial to the species.

Protective coloration. Provides plants and animals with protection from enemies. Organisms with this color blend into the background and become less noticeable.

Disguise. A device in which the body shape and color of animals merges with surrounding objects. Praying mantises, butterfly caterpillars resemble twigs, butterflies resemble plant leaves, etc.

Mimicry. Imitation of unprotected species by protected species in shape and color. Some flies look like wasps, snakes look like vipers, etc.

Warning coloring. Many animals have bright colors or certain identifying marks that warn of danger to a predator. A predator that attacks once remembers the color of the victim and will be more careful next time.

Relative nature of adaptations. All adaptations are developed under certain environmental conditions. It is under these conditions that devices are most effective. However, it should be borne in mind that fitness is not absolute. They eat animals with both protective and warning colors, and they also attack those who are camouflaged. Birds that fly well are poor runners and can be caught on the ground; when environmental conditions change, the developed adaptation may turn out to be useless or harmful.

Evidence of evolution:

1. Comparative anatomical proof

are based on identifying common and different morphological and anatomical features of the structure of various groups of organisms.

Anatomical evidence for evolution includes:

– presence of homologous organs, having a general structural plan, developing from similar germ layers in embryogenesis, but adapted to perform different functions (arm - flipper - bird wing). Differences in the structure and functions of organs arise as a result of divergence;

– presence of similar organs, having different origins in embryogenesis, different structures, but performing similar functions (bird wing and butterfly wing). The similarity of functions arises as a result convergence;

– presence of rudiments and atavisms;

– existence of transitional forms.

Rudiments – organs that have lost their functional significance (coccyx, ear muscles in humans).

Atavisms – cases of manifestation of signs of distant ancestors (tail and hairy body in humans, remains of the 2nd and 3rd toes in a horse).

Transitional forms - indicate phylogenetic continuity during the transition from ancestral forms to modern ones, and from class to class.

2. Embryological proof.

Embryology studies patterns embryonic development and sets:

– phylogenetic relationship of organisms;

– patterns of phylogenesis.

The data obtained were reflected in the laws of germinal similarity of K.M. Baer and in the biogenetic law of E. Haeckel and F. Muller.

Baer's lawestablishes the similarity of the early stages of development of embryos of representatives of different classes within the type. At later stages of embryonic development, this similarity is lost, and the most specialized characteristics of the taxon develop, up to the individual characteristics of the individual.

Biogenetic law of Müller-Haeckel states that ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. In the process of evolution, ontogeny can be rearranged, which leads to the evolution of organs of an adult organism.

In ontogenesis, only the embryonic stages of the ancestors are repeated and not always completely. If at an early stage the organism is adapted to environmental conditions, then it can reach maturity without going through subsequent stages, as, for example, happens in axolotls - the larvae of tiger ambystoma.

3. Paleontological proof

– allow us to date events of ancient history using fossil remains of organisms. Paleontological evidence includes the phylogenetic series of horses, proboscideans, and humans built by paleontologists.

The unity of the organic world is manifested in chemical composition, the finest structure and basic life processes occurring in organisms.

Thematic assignments

A1. Give an example of a protective coloration

1) the coloring of a ladybug protects it from birds

2) zebra coloring

3) coloring of the wasp

4) coloring of a hazel grouse sitting on a nest

A2. The Przewalski's horse is adapted to life in the steppes of Central Asia, but is not adapted to life in

1) the prairies of South America

2) the jungle of Brazil

3) semi-deserts

4) Askania-Nova Nature Reserve

A3. The resistance of some cockroaches to poisons is a consequence

1) driving selection

2) stabilizing selection

3) simultaneous mutation

4) imperfections of poisons

A4. New adaptations to environmental conditions are formed depending on

1) the desire of organisms to progress

2) favorable environmental conditions

4) reaction norms of organisms

A5. An adaptation to pollination by nocturnal insects in small solitary plants is

1) white color of the corolla

2) dimensions

3) location of stamens and pistils

A6. The homologue of the human hand is

1) bird wing

2) butterfly wing

3) grasshopper leg

4) crayfish claw

A7. An analogue of a butterfly wing is

1) jellyfish tentacles

2) bird wing

3) human hand

4) fish fin

A8. The appendix is ​​a vermiform appendix of the cecum, called a rudiment because it

1) confirms the origin of man from animals

2) lost its original function

3) is a homolog of the primate colon

4) is an analogue of the intestines of arthropods

A9. What are the reasons for the emergence of diversity in the organic world?

1) adaptability to environmental conditions

2) selection and preservation of hereditary changes

3) struggle for existence

4) duration of evolutionary processes

A10. Embryological evidence of evolution includes similarities

1) plan of the structure of organisms

2) anatomical structure

3) chordate embryos

4) development of all organisms from the zygote

A11. Phylogenetic series of some refer to evidence of evolution

1) anatomical

2) paleontological

3) historical

4) embryological

A12. An intermediate form between vertebrates and invertebrates is considered to be a representative

1) cartilaginous fish

2) arthropods

3) skullless

4) shellfish

IN 1. Anatomical evidence for evolution includes

1) similarity of embryos

2) similarity of functions of some organs

3) the presence of a tail in some people

4) common origin of organs

5) fossils of plants and animals

6) the presence of ear muscles in humans and dogs

AT 2. Paleontological data and evidence of evolution include

1) similarities between trilobites and modern arthropods

2) placentarity of ancient and modern mammals

3) the existence of seed ferns and their fossils

4) comparison of the shapes of the skeletons of ancient and modern people

5) the presence of multiple nipples in some people

6) three-layer structure of the body of ancient and modern animals

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n Various One of the most important ciliate stages in the evolution of the animal world was the transition of single-celled protozoa to a colonial lifestyle. All multicellular animals originate from colonial flagellates. flagellar sarcodae

Multicellular animals n From colonial unicellular animals, the Sponge type first arose, then the Coelenterate type (two-layer multicellular animals, consisting of two layers of cells (ectoderm and endoderm)

Coelenterates n The body of coelenterates also consists of two layers of cells. The outer layer is called ectoderm and the inner layer is called endoderm. Between them there is a gelatinous structureless substance - mesoglea. 1 - siphonophore, 2 sea anemone, 3 - coral polyps, 4 - scyphoid jellyfish.

n n n The further history of the animal world goes in two different directions: the family tree is divided into two large trunks - protostomes and deuterostomes. In protostomes, the opening leading to the gastrula (primary mouth) turns into an oral opening, and in deuterostomes, into an anal; their mouth opening later forms anew, at the opposite end of the embryo. Let us trace the further fate of each of these directions in the evolution of the animal world.

The trunk of protostomes forms a series of branches, with a gradual complication of the organism. n n n The lowest branch is the Flatworms. They develop bilateral symmetry and for the first time among multicellular organisms special excretory organs appear. Nearby there is another branch of worms - the Roundworms type.

n Annelids have the highest organization among worms; they have all the organ systems inherent in higher types of animals: a tubular intestine, a circulatory system, organs of excretion, movement, respiration, a nerve chain, a secondary body cavity, and the division of the body into segments appears

The complication of the body cavity can be seen in various worms. n In flatworms, the body cavity is filled with parenchyma. In roundworms a primary body cavity is formed, and in annelids a secondary body cavity is formed.

n Mollusks are very close in origin to annelids. Their embryonic development proceeds in the same way. Characteristic feature shellfish is a protective cover in the form of a shell covering the body.

Increasing complexity of animals in the process of evolution n An important evolutionary change is the complication nervous system. The scalene nervous system of flatworms is replaced by the ventral nerve cord in annelids and the scattered nodule in mollusks.

n n n Annelids gave rise to the phylum Arthropods, which have the highest organization among invertebrate animals (exoskeleton, differentiation of muscles, formation of articulated limbs, complex mouth parts, division of the body into the head, chest and abdomen, complication of the respiratory system, nervous system, sensory organs. Classes arthropods: the now extinct class of trilobites, crustaceans, arachnids, millipedes and insects. It is important to note that arthropods evolved in two directions: trilobites and crustaceans are adapted to life in water (gill-breathing), while others are tracheal-breathing land animals.

Deuterostome trunk n n n This trunk of the animal kingdom in turn divided into two large branches. One of them formed the type Echinodermata. The second, more significant branch of deuterostomes formed the phylum Chordata.

Phylum Echinodermata n n These are exclusively marine animals with radial or radial symmetry of the body. They are characterized by the presence of a calcareous skeleton that develops in the connective layer of the skin.

Phylum Chordata n n One of the most primitive branches of chordates is the subphylum Lancelet. By the structure of the lancelet one can judge the distant ancestors of all chordates.

n n The most ancient representatives of the primary chordates gave rise not only to the skullless, but also to the primary cranial ones, from which the type Cranial or Vertebrates originated. First, the lower branch of vertebrates was formed - jawless vertebrates (representative - extinct ostracoderms from the Silurian period.

Class Cyclostomes n Close to jawless modern class Cyclostomata, which include lampreys and hagfish. n. . New folder (2) lamprey. jpg

n n n Further evolutionary development of vertebrates is associated with the emergence of the jaw apparatus, which made it possible to intensify the process of food capture and thus significantly increase metabolism and all other life processes. The first gnathostomes were fish. In the class of fishes, not counting the extinct armored fishes, two main branches were formed: cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes

Cartilaginous fish n Cartilaginous fish include sharks, rays and chimeras 1 - stingray, 2 manta rays, 3 - electric rays.

Bone fish n n Bone fish are diverse: 1 - beluga, 2 - Atlantic sturgeon, 3 sea sturgeon and stellate sturgeon. freshwater forms. These include: sturgeon, ray-finned, lungfish and lobe-finned fish, flounder, lionfish, tuna, sea bass

Lobe-finned fish n n Ancient representatives of lobe-finned fish gave rise to the first amphibians - stagocephalus, which began to colonize land from the end of the Devonian period. This direction of evolution was possible because lobe-finned fish had a certain skeletal structure of fins that formed five-fingered limbs and pulmonary sacs that made the transition to air breathing possible. The structure of the hand of an amphibian and lobe-finned fish

Class amphibians, or amphibians Representatives of the order of tailless amphibians n Stegocephalians gave rise to various modern orders of tailed, tailless and legless amphibians. Representatives of the order of tailed amphibians

Class reptiles n From the ancient stegocephalians, in addition to amphibians, reptiles, or reptiles, also arose, which are true terrestrial vertebrates.

The order of the first bird, or Archeopteryx n Birds and mammals evolved from reptiles. An intermediate link between birds and ancient reptiles are the first birds (Archaeopteryx), who lived in the Jurassic period.

n The intermediate link between reptiles and mammals were the animal-like reptiles, lizards, common in the Permian and Triassic periods.

Class mammals: subclass oviparous n Mammals in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods were represented by several branches, in particular, proto-beasts or oviparous animals.

Class mammals: subclass marsupials n One of the branches of mammals gave rise to lower animals, or marsupials, and higher animals, or placentals. Opossum, wombat, koala, marsupial devil, giant red kangaroo

Class mammals: subclass placental or higher animals n During the Tertiary and Quaternary periods, modern orders of higher animals were formed: insectivores, chiropterans, rodents, carnivores, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, saber-toothed cetaceans, tiger, peaty deer, cave bear, ungulates, primates.

The order Homo sapiens n About a million years ago, humans emerged from the higher primates and the prehistoric period of human development began.

Protective coloring and body shape Make animals invisible against the background of the environment Protective coloring and body shape seem to camouflage the animals. It is characteristic of many species of fish, frogs, birds, and animals. For example, the callima butterfly and the South American grasshopper are similar in color and shape to a plant leaf. In some animals, body color may change. For example, a praying mantis, a chameleon, and a flounder are capable of changing body color. The white hare's coat color changes with the seasons.

Warning coloring Sharply distinguishes the animal from the environment. This coloring is characteristic of animals that secrete poisonous or foul-smelling substances: bumblebees, bees, wasps, ladybugs. They seem to warn other animals: “Don’t touch me!” 1 – forest wasp, 2 – ground bumblebee, 3 – ladybug

Mimicry Mimicry (from the Greek “mimicos” - imitative) is a protective coloring and body shape, usually characteristic of animals that do not have means of protection, making the animal look like another organism that has means of protection. For example, some flies have colors similar to those of wasps. As a rule, well-protected species have a color that combines red and black or yellow and black, making the animal highly visible.

Example A woodpecker easily moves along tree trunks, but its limbs are poorly adapted to move along the soil surface. Waterfowl have difficulty moving on land. The white color of the hare makes it invisible in the snow and clearly visible against the background of dark tree trunks.

Formation of fitness in organisms Fitness is formed as a result of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution and includes the stages: The appearance of various hereditary changes in individuals of the population; Preferential survival and reproduction as a result of natural selection of individuals with hereditary changes useful in given environmental conditions; natural selection Preservation from generation to generation of individuals with useful changes.

Self-control Determine the correct sequence of stages in the formation of fitness: 1. preservation of individual units with useful changes; 2. Preservation and reproduction of individuals in a number of generations with useful changes; 3. The appearance of various hereditary changes in the population. 1. 1,2,3 2. 3,1,2 3. 2,1,3 Answer 2. 3,1,2

Conclusions Adaptations to the environment are varied and are manifested in structure, behavior, and life processes. Adaptations Adaptation is formed as a result of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution Adaptation All adaptations are relative and useful only in a typical habitat All adaptations The results of evolution include fitness, diversity of species, the complication of the organization of living beings The results of evolution 16