The chronological principle of presentation allowed the chroniclers to include material that was heterogeneous in nature and genre characteristics into the chronicle. The simplest narrative unit of the chronicle is a laconic weather record, limited only to a statement of fact. However, the very introduction of this or that information into the chronicle testifies to its significance from the point of view of a medieval writer. For example: "In the summer of 6377(869 )... The whole Bulgarian land was baptized ... ";" In the summer of 6419(911 )... Appear a great star in the west in a spear fashion ... ";" In the summer of 6481 (973 )... Start princess Yaropolk " etc. The structure of these records is noteworthy: the first place, as a rule, is given to the verb, which emphasizes the significance of the action.

The chronicle also presents a type of detailed record, recording not only the "deeds" of the prince, but also their results. For example: "In the summer of 6391. Pocha Oleg fought the derevlyans, and having tortured them a tribute, according to the black kuna" etc.

Both the brief weather record and the more detailed one are documentary. There are no tropes that decorate speech in them. The recording is simple, clear and concise, which gives it special significance, expressiveness and even majesty.

The chronicler's focus is on the event - "INTO sya here in the summer vulture". They are followed by news of the death of the princes. The birth of children, their marriage is less often recorded. Then information about the construction activities of the princes. Finally, there are reports of church affairs, which occupy a very modest place. True, the chronicler describes the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, places legends about the beginning of the Pechersky Monastery, the death of Theodosius of the Pechersky and stories about the memorable monarchs of the Pechersk. This is quite understandable by the political significance of the cult of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb and the role of the Kiev Caves Monastery in the formation of the initial chronicle.

An important group of chronicle news is made up of information about heavenly signs - eclipses of the sun, moon, earthquakes, epidemics, etc. The chronicler sees a connection between unusual natural phenomena and the life of people, historical events. The historical experience associated with the testimony of the chronicle of George Amartol leads the chronicler to the conclusion: "Signs bo in heaven, or stars, whether suns, whether birds, whether eterom what, are not for the good; but the signs of sitting on evil are, whether the manifestation of rati, whether glad, whether they show death."

Messages that are diverse in their subject matter can be combined within one chronicle article. The material that is part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" makes it possible to single out a historical legend, a toponymic tradition, a historical legend (associated with a heroic epic retinue), a hagiographic legend, as well as a historical legend and a historical tale.

The connection of the chronicle with folklore. The chronicler draws material about the events of the distant past from the treasury of national memory.

The appeal to the toponymic legend was dictated by the chronicler's desire to find out the origin of the names of the Slavic tribes, individual cities and the word "Rus" itself. Thus, the origin of the Slavic tribes of the Radimichi and Vyatichi is associated with the legendary descendants of the Poles - the brothers Radim and Vyatko. This legend arose among the Slavs, obviously, during the period of the disintegration of the clan system, when the isolated clan foreman, to substantiate his right to political dominance over the rest of the clan, creates a legend about his allegedly foreign origin. Close to this chronicle legend is the legend about the vocation of princes, placed in the annals under 6370 (862), at the invitation of the Novgorodians from across the sea "reign and volodet" Three Varangian brothers come to the Russian land with their families: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor.

The folklore of the legend confirms the presence of the epic number three or three brothers. The legend has a purely Novgorod, local origin, reflecting the practice of relations between the feudal city republic and the princes. There were frequent cases in the life of Novgorod "vocations" a prince who served as a military leader. Introduced into the Russian chronicle, this local legend acquired a certain political meaning. She substantiated the rights of princes to political power over all of Russia. A single ancestor of the Kiev princes was established - the semi-legendary Rurik, which allowed the chronicler to consider the history of the Russian land as the history of the princes of Rurik's house. The legend about the vocation of princes emphasized the political independence of the princely power from the Byzantine Empire.

Thus, the legend about the vocation of princes served as an important argument for proving the sovereignty of the Kiev state, and did not at all testify to the inability of the Slavs to independently organize their state, without the help of the Europeans, as some scientists tried to prove.

A typical toponymic legend is also the legend about the founding of Kiev by thundering brothers - Kiy, Shchsky, Khoryv and their sister Lybedyr. The chronicler himself points to the oral source of the material entered into the chronicle: "Ini, not knowledgeable, rekosha, what Kii is the carrier was." The chronicler indignantly rejects the version of the folk legend about the Kiev carrier. He categorically declares that Kiy was a prince, made successful campaigns to Constantinople, where he received a great honor from the Greek king and founded the settlement of Kievets on the Danube.

Chronicle news about the Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral rites are filled with echoes of ritual poetry from the times of the tribal system.

The first Russian princes, Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav, are characterized in the chronicles by the methods of oral folk epic.

Oleg is, first of all, a courageous and wise warrior. Thanks to his military ingenuity, he defeats the Greeks, putting his ships on wheels and putting them under sail on the ground. He cleverly unravels all the intricacies of his Greek enemies and concludes a peace treaty beneficial to Russia with Byzantium. As a sign of his victory, Oleg nails his shield at the gates of Constantinople to the shame of his enemies and the glory of his homeland.

The lucky warrior prince is popularly nicknamed "prophetic" i.e. a magician (although the Christian chronicler did not fail to emphasize that the nickname was given to Oleg by the pagans, "people of filth and lack of voice"), but he also fails to escape his fate. Under 912. the chronicle places a poetic tradition associated, obviously, "with Olga's grave", which "there are ... to this day." This legend has a complete plot, which is revealed in a laconic dramatic narration. It clearly expresses the idea of ​​the power of fate, which no mortal can escape, and even "prophetic" prince, unable to.

Igor is depicted in a slightly different plan. He is also courageous and courageous, defeating the Greeks in the campaign in 944. He is caring and attentive to the needs of his squad, but, moreover, he is greedy. The desire to collect as much tribute from the Drevlyans as possible becomes the reason for his death. Igor's greed is condemned by the chronicler with a folk proverb, which he puts into the mouths of the Drevlyans: "If a wolf enters a sheep, then take out the whole flock, if not lose it ..."

Igor's wife Olga is a wise woman, faithful to the memory of her husband, rejecting the matchmaking of not only the Drevlyane prince Mal, but also the Greek emperor. She takes cruel revenge on her husband's murderers, but her cruelty is not condemned by the chronicler. The description of Olga's four places emphasizes the wisdom, firmness and inflexibility of the character of a Russian woman. DS Likhachev notes that the basis of the legend is made up of riddles that the unlucky matchmakers cannot solve. Olga's riddles are based on associations of wedding and funeral rites: they carried in boats not only guests of honor, but also the dead; Olga's proposal to the ambassadors to wash in the bath is not only a sign of the highest hospitality, but also a symbol of the funeral rite; heading to the Drevlyans, Olga goes to create a feast not only for her husband, but also for the Drevlyan ambassadors killed by her. The slow-witted Drevlyans understand Olga's words in their direct meaning, not suspecting a different, hidden meaning of the wise woman's mysteries, and thereby doom themselves to death. The entire description of Olga's revenge is based on a bright, laconic and stage diajug between the princess and the messengers "Derevskaya land".

The heroic of the retinue epic is fanned by the image of the stern, simple and strong, courageous and straightforward warrior Svyatoslav. Deceit, flattery, cunning are alien to him - qualities inherent in his enemies, the Greeks, who, as the chronicler notes, "flattering even to this day." With a small squad, he triumphs over the superior forces of the enemy: with a short, courageous speech, he inspires his soldiers to fight: "... let us not shame Ruska on the ground, but lie down on the bones, the dead imam is not a shame."

Svyatoslav despises wealth, he values ​​only the squad, the weapon with which you can get any wealth. The description of this prince in the chronicle is accurate and expressive: "... walking lightly, like Pardus, I do many wars. Walking, I don't carry a cart on its own, neither a cauldron, nor cooking meat, but having cut horse meat, whether animal or beef on coal, I baked yadyashe, no tent is better, but the lining sending a saddle in their heads; so is his other howl ecu byahu ".

Svyatoslav lives by the interests of his squad. He even goes against the admonitions of his mother - Olga and refuses to accept Christianity, fearing the ridicule of the squad. But constant striving

Svyatoslav to wars of conquest, disregard for the interests of Kiev, his attempt to transfer the capital of Russia to the Danube evokes the condemnation of the chronicler. This condemnation he expresses with his lips "kiyan": "... you, prince, looking for someone else's land and dishes,(left), small(barely) more we are not taken pechenezi ... "

The upright warrior prince dies in an unequal battle with the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids. Prince of Pechenezh who killed Svyatoslav, Smoking, "his head was taken, and in his forehead(skull) he made a cup that bound his forehead, and I drink from it. " The chronicler does not moralize about this death, but general trend still affects: the death of Svyatoslav is natural, it is a consequence of his disobedience to his mother, a consequence of his refusal to be baptized.

The chronicle news about Vladimir's marriage to the Polotsk princess Rogneda, about his abundant and generous feasts held in Kiev - the Korsun legend - goes back to folk legends. On the one hand, a pagan prince with his unbridled passions appears before us, on the other, an ideal Christian ruler endowed with all the virtues: meekness, humility, love for the poor, for monastic and monastic rank, etc. with the Christian prince, the chronicler strove to prove the superiority of the new Christian morality over the pagan.

The reign of Vladimir was fanned by the heroism of folk legends already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.

The legend about the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaka over the Pechenezh giant is imbued with the spirit of the folk heroic epic. As in the folk epic, the legend emphasizes the superiority of a man of a peaceful heap, a simple artisan over a professional warrior - the Pechenezh bogatyr. The images of the legend are built on the principle of contrasting comparison and broad generalization. At first glance, the Russian youth is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but in him is embodied that huge, gigantic power that the Russian people possess, decorating the earth with their labor and protecting it on the battlefield from external enemies. The Pechenezhsky warrior with his gigantic size terrifies those around him. A modest Russian youth, the youngest son of a tanner, is opposed to a boastful and arrogant enemy. He accomplishes the feat without arrogance and bragging. At the same time, the legend is timed to the toponymic legend about the origin of the city of Pereyaslavl - "having passed the glory of a youth", but this is a clear anachronism, since Pereyaslavl was mentioned more than once in the chronicle before this event.

The legend of the Belgorod jelly is connected with the folk fairy-tale epic. This legend glorifies the mind, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the Russian person.

Both the legend of Kozhemyak and the legend of Belgorod kissel are complete narratives based on the opposition of the inner strength of the toiler to the bragging of a fearful enemy only in appearance, the wisdom of an old man to the credulity of the Pechenegs. The plots of both legends culminate in duels: in the first - physical combat, in the second - the combat of the mind and resourcefulness with gullibility, stupidity. The plot of the legend about Kozhemyak is typologically close to the plots of heroic folk epics, and the legend of the Belgorod jelly - folk tales.

The folklore basis is clearly felt in the church legend about the visit of the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. Placing this legend, the chronicler strove to "historically" substantiate the religious independence of Russia from Byzantium. Legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly by the disciple of Christ himself - the Apostle Andrew, who once traveled the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper and Volkhov, - Christianity was predicted on the Russian land. The church legend about how Andrei blessed the Kiev mountains is combined with the folk legend about Andrei's visit to the Novgorod land. This legend has an everyday character and is associated with the custom of the inhabitants of the Slavic north to steam in hotly heated wooden baths.

Compilers of the chronicles of the XVI century. drew attention to the discrepancy between the first part of the story about the visit of the Apostle Andrew to Kiev from the second, they replaced the everyday story with a pious tradition, according to which Andrew leaves his cross in the Novgorod land.

Thus, most of the chronicle legends dedicated to the events of the 9th - late 10th centuries are associated with oral folk art, its epic genres.

Historical stories and legends as part of the chronicle. As the chronicler moves from narrating the events of the past years to the recent past, the material of the chronicle becomes more and more historically accurate, strictly factual and official.

The attention of the chronicler is attracted only by historical figures at the top of the feudal hierarchical ladder. In portraying their deeds, he follows the principles of medieval historicism. According to these principles, only purely official events that have historical significance for the state should be recorded in the chronicle, and the chronicler is not interested in the private life of a person, the surrounding everyday environment.

The chronicle elaborates the ideal of the prince-ruler. This ideal is inseparable from the general patriotic ideas of the chronicle. The ideal ruler is the living embodiment of love for the native land, its honor and glory, the personification of its power and dignity. All his actions, all his activities are determined by the welfare of the homeland and the people. Therefore, the prince, in the opinion of the chronicler, cannot belong to himself. He is primarily a historical figure who always appears in an official setting, endowed with all the attributes of princely power. DS Likhachev notes that the prince is always official in the chronicle, he is, as it were, addressed to the viewer and is represented in his most significant actions. The virtues of the prince are a kind of ceremonial dress; at the same time, some virtues are purely mechanically joined to others, thanks to which it became possible to combine the ideals of the secular and the ecclesiastical. Fearlessness, courage, military valor are combined with humility, meekness and other Christian virtues.

If the prince's activities are aimed at the good of the homeland, the chronicler glorifies him in every possible way, endowing him with all the qualities of a predetermined ideal. If the prince's activities run counter to the interests of the state, the chronicler does not regret the black paint and ascribes to the negative character all mortal sins: pride, envy, ambition, greed, etc.

The principles of medieval historicism are vividly embodied in stories "About killing Borisov"(1015) and about the blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky, which can be attributed to the genre of historical stories about princely crimes. However, in their style, these are completely different works. The story "About killing Borisov" expounds the historical facts of the murder of brothers Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk with extensive use of elements of the hagiographic style. It is built on the contrast between the ideal martyr princes and the ideal villain - "accursed" Svyatopolk. The story ends with praise glorifying "Christ-loving passion-bearers", "shining lamps", "bright stars" - "defenders of the Russian land." In its ending, there is a prayer call for the martyrs to subdue the nasty "under the pose of our prince" and deliver them "from a comfortable rati", so that they abide in peace and unity. This is how the patriotic idea common to the entire chronicle is expressed in a hagiographic form. At the same time, the story "About killing Borisov" interesting for a number of "documentary" details, "realistic details".

Written by priest Vasily and placed in the annals under 1097, "The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky" designed in the style of historical documentary.

The exposition of the plot is a message about the congress of princes "the world is not arranged" in Lyubech. The unanimity of the audience is expressed in a speech supposedly said by all the princes: "Why are we destroying the Russian land, for which we are doing it ourselves? And the Polovtsi should bear our land in a different way, and for the sake of the essence, even between us rati. Yes, but from now on we are in one heart, and we keep the Rus lands; yes, keep your fatherland ..."

The established new feudal order of relationships ( "yes kojo keeps his fatherland") princes sealed with an oath - kissing the cross. They give each other their word not to allow strife,

strife. This decision meets with the approval of the people: "and for the sake of goodness all". However, the achieved unanimity turned out to be temporary and fragile, and the story, using a specific, terrible example of Vasilko's blinding by his cousins, shows what the violation of the obligations assumed by the princes leads to.

The motivation for the plot of the story is traditional, providential: saddened "love" the consent of the princes the devil "fit" in heart "by some husband"; they say "lying words" David that Vladimir Monomakh allegedly conspired with Vasilko about joint actions against him and Svyatopolk of Kiev. What is this "some men"- it is not known what actually prompted them to report their "lying words" Davydu is unclear. Then the providential motivation develops into a purely psychological one. Believing "to husbands", Davyd sows doubts in the soul of Svyatopolk. Last, "get confused by the mind", hesitates, he does not believe in the validity of these statements. In the end, Svyatopolk agrees with David in the need to capture Vasilko.

When Vasilko came to the Vydubitsky monastery, Svyatopolk sent a messenger to him with a request to stay in Kiev until his name day. Vasilko refuses, fearing that in his absence the house would not have happened "rati". Davyd, who was then sent to Vasilko, already demands that Vasilko stay and thus not "disobeyed the oldest brother." Thus, Davyd raises the question of the need for Vasilko to observe his duty as a vassal in relation to the suzerain. Note that Boris and Gleb are dying in the name of fulfilling this duty. Vasilko's refusal only convinces Davyd that Vasilko intends to seize the city of Svyatopolk. Davyd insists that Svyatopolk immediately give Vasilka to him. Once again the messenger of Svyatopolk goes to Vasilko and on behalf of the great Kiev prince asks him to come, say hello and sit with David. Vasilko mounts a horse and with a small retinue goes to Svyatopolk. It is characteristic that here the story is built according to the laws of an epic plot: Vasilko decides to go to his brother only after the third invitation.

A vigilante warns about the insidious plan of brother Vasilko, but the prince cannot believe: "How do you want me?"(when recently) kissed the cross. " Vasilko does not allow the thought of the possibility of the princes violating their obligations.

The story about Vasilko's meeting with Svyatopolk and Davyd is dramatic and deeply psychological. Introducing the guest into the upper room, Svyatopolk is still trying to strike up a conversation with him, asks him to stay until Christmas time, and "Davyd is sitting still, aky is him", and this detail clearly characterizes the psychological state of the latter. Svyatopolk cannot withstand the tense atmosphere and leaves the upper room under the pretext of having to order breakfast for the guest. Vasilko is left alone with Davyd, he tries to start a conversation with him, "and there is no voice in David, no obedience." And only now Vasilko begins to see clearly: he "be horrified" realizing the deception. And Davyd, after sitting for a while, leaves. Cornflower, however, shackled in "two chains", locked in an upper room, with watchmen at night.

Emphasizing the indecision and hesitations of Svyatopolk, the author tells that he does not dare to make the final decision about the fate of Vasilko himself. Svyatopolk convenes in the morning "boyars and kiyan" and expounds to them the accusations that Davyd is making against Vasilka. But both the boyars and "kyans" take no moral responsibility. Forced to make his own decision, Svyatopolk hesitates. The abbots beg him to let Vasilka go, and Davyd "senses" for blinding. Svyatopolk already wants to let Vasilko go, but Davyd's words outweigh the scales: "... if this(blinding, - VC.) if you do not dissolve, you let it go, and then neither will you be princes, nimna. " The decision was made by the prince, and Vasilka is transported by carriage from Kiev to Belgorod, where he is planted in "source of mala". The development of the plot reaches its climax, and it is given with great artistic skill. Seeing a stick sharpening a knife, Vasilko guesses his fate: they want to blind him, and he "Rip up to God with great weeping and groaning." It should be noted that the author of the story, priest Vasily, did not follow the path of hagiographic literature. According to the hagiographic canon, a lengthy monologue of the hero, his prayer, crying should have been placed here.

Precisely, dynamically, the author conveys the climax scene. The main artistic function in this scene belongs to the verb - a kind of "speech gesture" as A. N. Tolstoy understood it. Enter the grooms Svyatopolk and Davyda - Svid Izechevich and Dmitr:

and often stretch the rug

and prostrate, yasta Vasilka

and wanting and baptize;

and fights nim hard,

and you can't kill him.

And lo and behold the friends I have plunged and,

and connect and,

and take the board off the stove,

and laid it on the Persian.

And the gray hair of the obapola Dream Izechevich and Dmitr,

and can’t hold back.

And starting in two,

and removed another deck from the stove,

and grayness,

and a boa constrictor and ramyano, like a persem of troscotati.

The whole scene is sustained in a clear rhythmic structure, which is created by the anaphoric repetition of the connecting conjunction "and", which conveys the temporal sequence of the action, as well as verbal rhymes.

Before us is a leisurely story about an event, there is no external emotional assessment in it. But a scene full of drama appears before the reader-listener with great concreteness: "And come stick out and ... holding a knife and though hit in the eye, and sin the eye and cut his face, and there is a wound on Vasilka even now. And therefore, give in the eye, and take out the apple, and therefore in the other eye , and taking out another apple. And that hour is fast and dead. "

The unconscious, lifeless Vasilko is being taken on a cart, and at the Bridge Building, at the bargaining, taking off his bloody shirt, they give it to wash it. Now the outwardly dispassionate tale is giving way to a lyrical episode. Booty deeply sympathizes with the unfortunate, she mourns him like a dead man. And hearing the cry of a compassionate woman, Vasilko regains consciousness. "And the touch of the shirt and the speech:" Why did they take off the change naturally? Yes, in that bloody shirt, he accepted death and stood before God. "

Davyd fulfilled his intention. He brings Vasilka to Vladimir Volynsky, "aka not like catching a catch." And in this comparison there is a moral condemnation of the crime committed by the brother.

Unlike the hagiographic narrative, Vasily does not moralize, he does not give biblical comparisons and quotations. From the story of the fate of Vasilko, he goes on to the story of how this crime is reflected in the fate of the Russian land, and now the main place is given to the figure of Vladimir Monomakh. It is in him that the ideal of the prince is embodied. Vasily hyperbolically conveys the feelings of the prince, who learned about Vasilko's blinding. Monomakh "... horrified and crying and speech:" This did not happen in the Russian land, neither with our dedek, nor with our fathers, any kind of evil. " He strives peacefully "fix" this is evil in order to prevent the death of the Russian land. They pray to Vladimir and "kiyane" "create the world" and "watch over Russian land", and Vladimir burst into tears says: "Truly, our fathers and our grandfathers zblyul the land of Russia, and we want to destroy." The characteristic of Monomakh takes on a hagiographic character. His obedience to his father and his stepmother is emphasized, as well as his veneration of the Metropolitan, the dignity of saint, and especially "black". Finding that he has deviated from the main theme, the narrator hurries "on your own" return and informs about peace with Svyatopolk, who pledged to go to Davyd Igorevich and either capture him or expel him. Then the author tells about Davyd's failed attempt to occupy the Vasilkov parish and the return of Vasilka to Terebovl. It is characteristic that in negotiations with Vasilko's brother Volodar Davyd tries to shift the blame for blinding Vasilko onto Svyatopolk.

The peace is then violated by Vasilko and Volodar. They take the city of Vsevolozh with a spear, set it on fire and "Take vengeance on the innocent people, and shed the blood of the innocent." Here the author clearly condemns Vasil'ko. This condemnation intensifies when Vasilko cracks down on Lazar and

Turyak (who persuaded Davyd to commit an atrocity); "Behold the second vengeance, take it out, you can't do it, but God would be the apostate."

Fulfilling the terms of the peace treaty, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich expels Davyd, but then, having crossed the kiss of the cross, goes to Vasilko and Volodar. Now Vasilko again appears in the aura of a hero. He becomes the head of the army, "raising the cross". At the same time, over the warriors "Many of the people of good faith vidsha cross."

Thus, Vasilka does not idealize the story. He is not only a victim of slander, cruelty and treachery of Davyd Igorevich, the credulity of Svyatopolk, but he himself reveals no less cruelty both in relation to the perpetrators of evil and in relation to innocent people. There is no idealization in the image of the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk, indecisive, trusting, weak-willed. The story allows the modern reader to imagine the characters of living people with their human weaknesses and virtues.

The story was written by a medieval writer, who builds it on the opposition of two symbolic images of "cross" and "knife", the leitmotif passing through the whole story.

"Cross" - "kissing the cross" - a symbol of the prince's brotherly love and like-mindedness, sealed with an oath. "Yes, if someone is from now on whom you will be, then we will have a good cross and an honest cross,"- with this oath the princes seal their agreement in Lyubech. Vasilko does not believe in the cunning of his brothers: "How do you want me ? they kissed cross, more often: if whoever you will be on, then you will be cross and we are all. " Vladimir Monomakh makes peace with Svyatopolk "kiss cross between myself ". Vasilko, revenging his insult to David, raises "cross fair".

The "knife" in the story about the blindness of Vasilko is not only a weapon of a specific crime - the blinding of Vasilko, but also a symbol of princely strife and strife. "... A knife has been thrown into us!" - exclaims Monomakh, having learned about the terrible atrocity. Then these words are repeated by the ambassadors sent to Svyatopolk: "What evil has the ecu blasted into the Rus of the earth and plunged the ecu a knife into us? "

Thus, "The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky" sharply condemns the violation by the princes of their contractual obligations, leading to terrible bloody crimes, bringing evil to the entire Russian land.

Descriptions of events associated with the military campaigns of the princes acquire the character of a historical documentary legend, testifying to the formation of the genre of a military story. Elements of this genre are present in the legend of Yaroslav's revenge on the Damned Svyatopolk in 1015–1016. The plot of the plot is the message to Yaroslav from Kiev from Predslava's sister about the death of his father and the death of Boris; Yaroslav begins to prepare for the campaign, gathers troops and goes to Svyatopolk. In turn, Svyatopolk, "annex a bes-shisla howl, Rus and Pechenegs", goes to meet Lyubech. Opposing sides stop at a water barrier - on the banks of the Dnieper. For three months they stand against each other, not daring to attack. And only the ridicule and reproaches thrown by the governor of Svyatopolk against Yaroslav and the Novgorodians force the latter to take decisive action: "... if anyone does not go with us, we ourselves will pull him." At dawn, Yaroslav with his troops crosses the Dnieper, and, pushing the boats away, the soldiers rush into battle. Description of the battle - the climax of the plot: "... and stepped back on the spot. There was a slaughter of evil, and did not help the Pecheneg by the lake, and squeezed Svyatopolk with his retinue to the lake, and stepped onto the ice and broke the ice with it, and started Yaroslav, seeing Svyatopolk and run away, and Odole Yaroslav ". Using a stylistic formula "slash evil" the battle is assessed. The victory of Yaroslav and the flight of Svyatopolk - the denouement of the plot.

Thus, this chronicle legend already contains the main plot and compositional elements of the military story: gathering troops, setting out on a campaign, preparing for battle, battle and its denouement.

The legends about the battle of Yaroslav with Svyatopolk and the Polish king Boleslav in 1018–1019, about the internecine struggle between Yaroslav and Mstislav in 1024 should be noted here, the appearance of a number of new stylistic formulas should be noted: the enemy comes "heavy in power", battlefield "covering a multitude of howls"; the battle takes place at dawn "the rising sun" emphasized its grandeur "it was quick to slaughter evil, yak was not in Russia", warriors "by the hands of a little bit," .

The symbolic image of the battle-thunderstorm is outlined in the description of the battle at Listven between the troops of Yaroslav and Mstislav in 1024: "Former nights, it was dark, molon, and thunder, and rain ... And the slaughter is strong, as if the molon shines, the weapon shines, and the storm is great and the slaughter is strong and terrible."

The image of the battle-thunder is used in the legend of 1111 about the coalition campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians, here the enemy troops are compared to the forest: "speaking like a boar".

The description of the battle introduces the motive of helping the heavenly forces (angels) to the Russian troops, which, according to the chronicler, testifies to the special disposition of heaven to pious princes.

All this allows us to speak about the presence in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of the main components of the genre of the military story.

Within the framework of the historical documentary style, messages about heavenly signs are sustained in the annals.

Elements of the hagiographic style. The compilers of the "Tale of Bygone Years" also included hagiographic works: a Christian legend, a martyr's life (a legend about two Varangian martyrs), a legend about the founding of the Kiev Caves monastery in 1051, about the death of his abbot Theodosius of the Caves in 1074 and the legend of the Pechersk monks. The legends about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb (1072) and Theodosius of the Caves (1091) are written in the hagiographic style.

The chronicle glorified the exploits of the founders of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, which was "delivered" nor "from kings, and from boyars, and from wealth", a "with tears, and fasting, and vigilance" Anthony and Theodosius of the Pechersky. Under 1074, following the story of the death of Theodosius, the chronicler tells about the Pechersk monks who "like the lights in Russia are being eaten." Glorifying the Christian virtues of the monks of the Caves, the soothsayer Eremey, the sagacious Matthew and the monastic Isaac, the chronicle at the same time also notes some of the shadow sides of the monastic life. The attempt of some monks to leave the Pechersk monastery and return "to the world" is noted in the story about Eremey.

The story about Matvey the sagacious in a fairy-tale form shows that a long church service tires many monks and they leave the church and go to sleep under various pretexts, and some, like Mikhail Tolbekovich, even run away from the monastery.

Of course, the weaknesses of the monks are explained in the chronicles by "the wiles of the demons." So, Matvey the perspicacious, being in the church, sees a demon, who has taken the form of a Pole. In the field of his cloak, this lyakh wears burdock flowers and throws them at the monks. For the monk Mikhail Tolbekovich, the demon comes to the monastery on a pig, and, incited by the demon, the monk after Matins, jumping over the fence, flees from the monastery.

In this way, the glorification of the holiness of the Pechersk Montenegrins is combined with a truthful reflection of some aspects of monastic life, which is clearly beyond the hagiographic style.

One of the forms of the glorification of princes in the annals are posthumous obituaries associated with the genre of funeral words of praise. The first such praiseworthy word is the obituary of Princess Olga, placed under 969. It begins with a series of metaphorical comparisons glorifying the first Christian princess. The metaphorical images of "stallion", "dawn", "light", "moon", "beads" (pearls) were borrowed by the chronicler from Byzantine hagiographic literature, but they were used to glorify the Russian princess and emphasize the importance for Russia of her feat - the adoption of Christianity. 1

The obituary-praise to Olga is stylistically close to the praise to Vladimir, placed in the chronicle near 1015. The deceased prince receives an evaluative epithet "blissful", that is, righteous, and his feat is equated with the feat of Constantine the Great.

The obituaries to Mstislav and Rostislav can be attributed to the genre of a verbal portrait, which characterizes the appearance and moral qualities of the princes: "Be the same Mstislav was debel in body, black in face, great ochima, khbor on rati, merciful, loving the squad for the great, the property is not sparing, neither drink, nor food scolding."

The obituary for Gleb (1078) is written in the hagiographic style: "Be the same, Gleb is merciful to the wretched and strange-loving, having diligence for the churches, warm by faith and meek, his eyes are red." The same is the obituary for Yaropolk Izyaslavich (1086).

The obituaries to Izyaslav and Vsevolod, along with the hagiographic idealization of these princes, relate to specific moments of their activities, and in the obituary to Vsevolod, a voice of condemnation sounds, since Vsevolod began to "love the meaning of the unlucky, creating light with them."

A very restrained chronicle in relation to the metropolitans, only one of them, John, was awarded a panegyric characterization given under 1089.

The death certificates of the prince, as a rule, are accompanied by reports of mourning over the body of the deceased and the place of his burial.

From Christian literature, the chronicler drew moralizing maxims, figurative comparisons. He supported his reasoning with quotations from the text of the "holy scripture". So, for example, telling about the betrayal of the governor Blud, the chronicler raises the question of the vassal's loyalty to his overlord. Condemning the traitor, the chronicler backs up his thoughts with references to Tsar David, that is, to the Psalter: "O evil human flattery! Like Davyd says: My poisonous bread, exalted flattery on me ..."

Quite often, the chronicler resorts to comparing events and historical figures with biblical events and characters.

The function of biblical comparisons and reminiscences in the annals is different. These comparisons emphasize the importance and greatness of the Russian land, its princes, they allow the chroniclers to translate the narrative from the "temporary" historical plan to the "eternal", that is, they perform an artistic function symbolic generalization... In addition, these comparisons are a means of moral assessment of events, actions of historical persons.

General characteristics of the style of the chronicle. Thus, all of the above allows us to speak of the presence in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of an epic narrative style associated with oral poetry, a historical-documentary style that prevails in the description of historical events, and a hagiographic style, which serves as an important means of establishing moral ideals prince-ruler, defender of the interests of the Russian land and condemnation of seditious princes.

The material, heterogeneous in genre and stylistic respect, is united in the chronicle by a single patriotic thought, a consistent chronological principle of presentation, a single historical, philosophical, moral concept. The chronicler is convinced that history has a beginning and an end in time. Its forward movement towards the end - "the last judgment" - is directed by the will of the deity. However, the behavior of a person also depends on himself, his expression of will, depends on the choice of the path of good or evil. History, according to the chronicler, is the arena of constant struggle between good and evil. He assesses the deeds of princes both from the standpoint of eternal moral truths and from the standpoint of the public morality of their time. The chronicler judges historical figures not so much by the "judgment of God" as by the court of men, by the court "kiyan", "meaningful men". He not only glorifies good, but also does not hide dark deeds. Duality, for example, in the chronicle the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. He cruelly deals with the Polotsk prince Rogvolod and his sons, kills his brother Yaropolk, acts as a persecutor of the first Christians, and is defeated by female lust. However, after the adoption of Christianity, its appearance changed dramatically: the features of Christian meekness and humility, piety came to the fore. But even here, through the idealized ideas about the Christian prince, living human features appear: Vladimir cowardly hides under the bridge, frightened by the onslaught of the Pechenegs near Vasilev, and quarrels with his son Yaroslav. Yaroslav is by no means an ideal ruler: he prepares to fight his father, brutally deals with the Novgorodians, who raised an uprising against the Varangian rapists; shows indecision in the fight against Svyatopolk, in panic he is ready to run overseas after defeat. Yaroslav also appears far from attractive in his internecine struggle with Mstislav. The sons of Yaroslav are the oath-breakers in relation to Vslav of Polotsk. For his lust for power, Svyatoslav is condemned, who expelled Izyaslav and seduced Vsevolod. Condemned by the chronicler Oleg Chernigovsky, who "The land of Russia has a lot of evil behind it, shedding blood to the Khrestyansku".

The chronicler acts in the role of a preacher-teacher: history is an object lesson to the "present princes", an instructive example to contemporaries. From ancient authors through Byzantium he inherited the principle of historians, formulated by Cicero: "Historia est magistra vitae" - "History is the teacher of life".

History in the "Tale of Bygone Years" appears as a teaching given not in the form of general maxims, but in the form of specific bright artistic legends, stories, fragmentary articles "for a number of" "bygone years".

The chronicler is deeply convinced of the ultimate triumph of goodness and justice, identifying goodness and beauty. He acts as a passionate publicist who expresses the interests of the entire Russian land.

The language of the Tale of Bygone Years broadly reflects the spoken language of its time. Almost every piece of news, before it was recorded by the chronicler, was deposited in oral speech. The direct speech of historical figures occupies an essential place in the style of the chronicle. The prince addresses his retinue with speeches, ambassadors conduct diplomatic negotiations, speeches are made at the veche, feasts. They testify to high oratory skills: they are laconic, laconic and unusually expressive. At the same time, the chronicler almost never resorts to fictional speeches - he is always accurate and strictly factual in conveying the "speeches" of his heroes.

In the chronicle, special terminology is widely represented: military, hunting, legal, ecclesiastical. Clear, expressive, figurative phraseological combinations are developed, such as: "take the hail with a spear"- take the city by storm, "ride a horse"- go on a hike, "wipe off the sweat"- to return with a victory, "there is deden bread"- to reign on the table of ancestors, "kiss the cross" - take an oath, "plunge the knife"- to start strife.

The chronicler often uses folk proverbs and sayings: " Perished like obre "," Trouble, like in the family "," Russia is fun drinking we can’t be without that".

The language of the Tale of Bygone Years testifies to an extraordinary high level development of the culture of oral and written speech in the XI-XII centuries.

The meaning of the "Tale of Bygone Years"

The Tale of Bygone Years played an important role in the development of regional chronicles and in the creation of all-Russian chronicles of the 15th – 16th centuries: it was invariably included in these chronicles, revealing the history of Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, and then the history of Moscow and the Moscow state.

In the literature of the XVIII-XIX centuries. "The Tale of Bygone Years" served as a source of poetic plots and images. So, A. P. Sumarokov, creating his classic tragedies, turned not to ancient subjects, but to the events of Russian national history (see his tragedies "Sinav and Truvor", "Khorev"), Ya. B. Knyazhnin his tyrannical tragedy " Vadim Novgorodsky "builds on the material of the chronicle.

The images of Vladimir, Svyatoslav, Oleg in the romantic "Dumas" by KF Ryleev, imbued with the pathos of freedom-loving ideas, occupy a large place.

The poetry of the chronicle legends was perfectly felt, understood and conveyed by A. Pushkin in his "Song of the Prophetic Oleg". In the annals he tried to "guess the way of thinking and the language of those times" in the tragedy "Boris Godunov". The image of the chronicler Pimen created by the poet, majestic in its spiritual beauty, was, in the words of FM Dostoevsky, evidence of "that powerful spirit of the people's life, which can distinguish from itself the images of such an undeniable truth."

And in our days the chronicle has not lost its great not only historical and cognitive, but also educational value. She continues to serve the education of noble patriotic feelings, teaches deep respect for the glorious historical past of our people.

• Cm.: Orlov A.S. On the peculiarities of the form of Russian military tales (end of the 17th century). M., 1902.
• Cm.: Adrianova-Peretz V.P. The tasks of studying the hagiographic style of Ancient Rus // TODRL. M .; L., 1964.T. 20.S. 41-71.
• Dostoevsky F.M. Diary of a writer for 1877, 1880 and 1881. M .; L., 1929.S. 385.

Class
Item	Literature
Teacher	Kudasheva M.V. (place of work MBOU Secondary School No. 30 in Shakhty)
Lesson no.
Lesson topic	Russian chronicles. "The Tale of Bygone Years". "The Legend of the Belgorod Kissel". Historical events and fiction. Reflection of popular ideals in the annals.
The purpose of the lesson	to acquaint students with Old Russian literature, its originality and patriotic orientation on the example of "The Legend of Belgorod Kissel". Lesson Objectives Educational: to give an idea of ​​the ancient Russian literature, the conditions of its origin, distinctive features; to give the concepts of "chronicle", "chronicle"; to acquaint with the content of the "Legend of the Belgorod jelly". Developing: develop skills monologue speech; continue to develop the ability to analyze, compare, compare, highlight the main thing, establish cause-and-effect relationships; develop skills of independent work; to increase the motivation for learning, which forms the interest of students, which significantly contributes to self-education and an increase in the level of training; develop Creative skills and figurative thinking of the Suvorovites. Educational: to cultivate a careful, respectful attitude to the book; contribute to the formation of aesthetic sensitivity of students; foster patriotism, interest in the history of their country; generate interest in literature
Literary theory	The concept of chronicle, chronicle, legend
Equipment	textbook "Literature. 6th grade" (authors V.Ya. Korovin, V.P. Zhuravlev, V.I. Korovin, M., "Education"),
Epigraph	Reading Old Russian works is a reduction in the distance between the past and the present, between cultures, between people in general. Thanks to the moral principle that is contained in ancient Russian literature, its significance is especially great right now.
Electronic educational resources

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

2. Knowledge update.

Teacher's word:

-Why does a modern person turn to the literature of the distant past?

(Slide number 2)

-What is Old Russian literature?(formulation of the topic and purpose of the lesson)

(Slide number 3)

Russian literature is over a thousand years old. This is one of the most ancient literatures in Europe. It is older than French, English, German literature. Its beginning dates back to the second half of the 10th century.

(Slide number 4)

The introduction of Christianity in 988 by Prince Vladimir was of great progressive importance: cultural and political ties were strengthened, writing appeared. The letter was transferred to us from Bulgaria.

(Slide number 5, 6)

The creators of the Slavic alphabet, preachers of Christianity Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius were natives of the city of Soluni (now the Greek city of Thessaloniki), which at that time was part of the Slavic (Bulgarian) territory and was the cultural center of Macedonia. Ancient Solun was a bilingual city, in it, in addition to the Greek language, the Slavic dialect sounded. In 863, Cyril, with the help of his brother Methodius, compiled the Old Church Slavonic alphabet and translated the main liturgical books from Greek into Bulgarian. These translations and works written in Bulgaria began to penetrate into Russia. At the same time, the first works of Russian literature began to appear. What was Russian literature in the first seven hundred years of its existence, or in other words, ancient Russian literature?

(Slide number 7)

Any literature creates its own special world, embodying the ideas of contemporary society. The universe was then perceived as a book written by the finger of God. Writing decoded this world of signs. A sense of the significance and greatness of the world was at the heart of literature. Old Russian literature can be viewed as literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is history, and this topic is the meaning of human life. All works Old Russian literature can be put in one row one after another in the order of the events taking place: we always know to what historical time they are attributed by the authors. History, real geographic space connect all separate works. The multivolume Great Menaion, the annalistic vaults, zlatoust, izmaragd, chronographs - the extensive manuscripts, which include these works, give an idea of ​​the feeling of the greatness of the world, which the ancient Russian scribes sought to express.

Literature is a sacred rite. The reader was in some way praying. He faced the work as an icon, felt a sense of awe.

But in ancient Russian literature, everyday events, simple human feelings, the desire to find a person with his good human qualities were also reflected.

When you read, for example, a letter from Vladimir Monomakh to Oleg Svyatoslavich, you experience a sense of surprise at the strength of the moral feeling expressed in him. Monomakh forgives Oleg - the murderer of his son Izyaslav - forgives after he defeated him and expelled him from the Russian land. Monomakh asks Izyaslav to return to Russia and take his inheritance by right of inheritance. He also asks to return the young widow Izyaslav to him: “... for there is neither evil nor good in her, so that I, embracing her, mourn her husband and that wedding of theirs, instead of songs: for I did not see their first joy, nor their wedding , for my sins. For God's sake, let her come to me as soon as possible with the first ambassador, so that, having cried with her, he would settle at home, and she would sit like a turtle dove on a dry tree, grieving ... " (Slide number 8)

The smallest manifestations of human concern are also touching. Here is a Novgorod chronicler in the XII century, describes the long standing rainy weather and adds: "And there is no hay, the cattle will have nothing to feed in winter."

Reading Old Russian works is a reduction in the distance between the past and the present, between cultures, between people in general.

Thanks to the moral principle that is contained in ancient Russian literature, its significance is especially great right now.

(Slide number 9)

(Based on the article by D. S. Likhachev "Literature of Ancient Rus")

3. Learning new material

3.1.1 Studying the article of the textbook "Old Russian literature: (p. 16-21)

3.1.2. Compilation of the Basic Synopsis "Old Russian Literature". Characteristic properties "(Appendix No. 2) (Slide number 10-14)

3.2 Heuristic conversation:

-What is the chronicle? ...(Slide number 15)

Chronicle - historical works of the XI-XVII centuries, in which the narration was carried out over the years (Slide number 16)

The story of the events of each year in the annals usually began with the words: "in the summer" - hence the name - chronicle. (Slide number 17)

Chronicle (Slide number 18)(compiling chronicles, recording historical events of ancient times by year) began in Russia in the XI century. The first chronicler was the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nikon (Slide number 19, 20) who was called the Great. His life was full of turbulent events, he was actively involved in the political struggle against those Kiev princes who put their interests above the general Russian ones, he was twice forced to flee to Tmutarakan (TMUTARAKAN, an ancient Russian city of the 10th-12th centuries, on the Taman Peninsula, the modern village Tamanskaya. Appeared on the site of ancient Hermonassa, Khazar Tamatarha. Remains of defensive walls, houses, cathedrals, etc. 0

At the end of his life, he became abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. It was then, apparently, that he compiled the chronicle. Scientists call the year 1073.
His work was continued by others, and in the first quarter of the XII century, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor ( Slide number 21) compiled "The Tale of Bygone Years" ( Slide number 22)- one of the most remarkable works of Old Russian literature. This "Story ..." has come down to us, rewritten and partly revised by the monk of the neighboring Vydubetsky monastery Sylvester ( Slide number 23).

Let's imagine for a moment that we are transported 1,000 years ago and find ourselves in the chronicler's cell….

3.3. Oral verbal drawing based on the painting by V.M. Vasnetsov "Nestor the Chronicler"

-What do we see onpicture?

Nestor worked in his cell - by day in the light of the sun, at night by the light of a candle. The icon lamp is burning. The chronicler writes on sheets made of calfskin. This material was very expensive and was called parchment. Now we write with pens, but in Vasnetsov's painting, the chronicler writes with a quill pen dipping it in ink. In fact, they wrote with a special sharp stick - a stylus.

-As picturedchronicler?

Nestor is dressed in monastic clothes. He has gray hair and a white beard. He carefully turns over the already written page of the book. Behind him on the table lies a fat the big Book buttoned with a padlock. From the window you can see the fortress walls with a tower and a church on the hill. The buildings and cells in Vasnetsov's painting are depicted believably

— Why does Vasnetsov's painting make a deep, strong impression on us, people of the XXI century?

With the power of imagination, we can imagine ourselves as participants in those distant events, see what happened and how, feel the scent of time

3.4 Heuristic conversation:

-Why was it so important for our ancestors to write down that such and such events took place "in the summer"?

Thus, life acquired universal human significance, the Russian land was comprehended in the system of the world, Russian history became part of the history of mankind. The "Tale of Bygone Years" begins from the Flood, the chronicler speaks of the origin of the Slavs from Japheth, one of the sons of Noah. This is how Russian history gets comprehended as a continuation. Sacred history... At the same time, the chronicler affirms the right of every nation to have its own customs, passed down from fathers to children. This is how the author's patriotism and at the same time his universal human ideals are manifested.

-Imagine that we have before us the first page of the "Tale of Bygone Years"(Slide number 24).

A graceful ornament, built of geometric shapes, interweaving of lines that turn into the image of a bird that looks like an eagle. The first lines can be easily parsed.
The letters were written vertically, each one separately. To save space, some words were abbreviated and missing letters were inscribed on top. There are almost no gaps between words. This font was called "charter". The writing of the text was like drawing: the letters are beautiful, in even rows. Of course, the process of writing the book took years of hard work. Books were copied by hand, this work was entrusted to selected scientists - scribes. ( Slide number 25).

"The Tale of Bygone Years" was a kind of historical encyclopedia

3.5. Expressive reading of excerpts from the "Tale of Bygone Years" "Oleg's campaign to Constantinople", "Oleg's death from his horse" by pre-trained students ( Slide number 26, 27).

Microitog: Russian history became part of the history of mankind ( Slide number 28).

4. Reading "The Legend of Belgorod Kissel" by a teacher or a well-prepared student (Slide number 30-45)

5. Analytical work with the text:

Working with a dictionary: find out the meaning of unfamiliar words: legend, pechenegs, korchaga, go home

— When did this legend take place?

(In 997, the described events took place more than a hundred years before the compilation of the chronicle of Nestor. That is, the author wrote down what was preserved in the people's memory.)

— What does "The siege dragged on" mean, and why "was there a strong famine in the city"?

(The city, which was a fortress, was surrounded by the Pechenegs; it was impossible to leave it to get food.)

— What is veche?

(A meeting of townspeople to solve public affairs, important issues.)

— Why did the townspeople first decide to surrender to the Pechenegs?

— Why did the inhabitants gladly obey the wise old man?

(It is humiliating to surrender to the enemy, so the residents are happy to have the opportunity to save their honor, the honor of the city.)

- What was the plan of saving the city by a wise old man? Did the residents of the city guess the significance of the elder's actions?

(The townspeople completely trusted the elder and did what he ordered, not guessing about his cunning plan. The military trick: to show that the besieged city does not die of hunger was a success.)

— What is the meaning of the phrase of the townspeople: "For we have food from the earth"?

(In addition to the direct meaning - the trick with which they managed to deceive the Pechenegs, this phrase has a deeper meaning: this is our native land, it feeds us, it will protect us.)

— What does the chronicler glorify?

(Intelligence, resourcefulness, patriotism. And in this legend, the hero is a simple person.)

6. Summing up the lesson.

Are the chronicles interesting to the modern reader? If you are interested, then with what?

What gives people the knowledge of their past, the history of their country from the most ancient times? (Words by D.S. Likhachev - Slide 47.)

7. Independent work: Write a miniature essay on the topic “What is interesting for the modern reader“ The Legend of the Belgorod jelly ”?

8. Assigning homework: Preparation of an oral report on the peculiarities of Old Russian literature and an expressive reading of the chronicle legend. Supplementing the table with examples from the "Legend of the Belgorod jelly". Reading the legend "Adoption of Christianity in Russia" and completing the tasks of the workshop "We read, think, argue ..."

Appendix # 2

Supporting synopsis

"Old Russian Literature". Characteristic properties "

It arose in Russia in the 10th century with the adoption of Christianity under the influence of the needs of the Church and the state.

1.The story of the works is simple. The story is calm, unhurried.

2. In the center of the image are exceptional events, exceptional heroes.

3. Poetics, connection with oral folk art: metaphorical images, hyperbole, the use of comparisons (warriors - falcons), songs, crying ...

4. The works are marked by high citizenship, love for the Motherland. They call for the sublime, the good. Russian writers had deep respect for other peoples and their beliefs.

6.Handwritten character.

7.In ancient stories, historical figures always acted, historical events were described.

Appendix No. 3

Oleg's campaign to Constantinople

“In the year 6415. Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kiev; He took with him a multitude of Varangians and Slavs, and Chudi, and Krivichi, and Meru, and Drevlyans, and Radimichs, and Polyans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tivertsy, known as Tolmachi: these were all called by the Greeks "Great Scythia". And with all of these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and there were 2,000 ships. And he came to Constantinople, the Greeks closed the Judgment, and the city was closed. And Oleg went ashore, and began to fight, and committed many murders in the vicinity of the city to the Greeks; And they smashed many chambers, and burned churches, And those who were captured, some were excised, others were tortured, others were shot with arrows, and some were thrown into the sea, and the Russians did many other evil things to the Greeks, as they usually do in war.

And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on them. And with a fair wind they raised the sails and went from the side of the field to the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said through the ambassadors to Oleg: "Do not destroy the city, we will give you any tribute you want." And Oleg stopped the soldiers, and brought him food and wine, but he did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were frightened, and said: "This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent against us from God." And Oleg ordered to give tribute to 2000 ships: 12 hryvnia per person, and there were 40 men in each ship ...

And so Tsar Leon and Alexander made peace with Oleg; pledged to pay tribute and went to a mutual oath: they themselves kissed the cross, and Oleg and his husbands were led to an oath according to the Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos - the god of cattle, and established peace. And Oleg said: "Sew for Russia sails from pavolok, and linen sails for the Slavs." And it was so! And he hung his shield on the gates as a sign of victory, and they departed from Constantinople. And Russia raised sails from the pavoloks, and the Slavs were made of linen, and the wind tore them apart. And the Slavs said: "Let's take our simple sails, the Slavs did not get the sails from the pavoloks." And Oleg returned to Kiev, carrying gold and pavoloks, and fruits, and wine, and all kinds of patterns. And they called Oleg the Prophetic, as the people were pagans and unenlightened. "

Oleg's death from his horse

“And Oleg, the prince, lived in Kiev, having peace with all countries. And autumn came, and Oleg remembered his horse, which he once put to feed, deciding never to sit on it. For once he asked the wise men and magicians: "Why should I die?" And one magician said to him: “Prince! From your beloved horse, on which you ride - you will die from it! " These words sank into Oleg's soul, and he said: "I will never sit on him and see him again." And he commanded to feed him and not to take him to him, and lived for several years without seeing him, until he went to the Greeks. And when he returned to Kiev and four years had passed, in the fifth year he remembered his horse, from which the Magi had once predicted his death. And he called the elder of the grooms, and said: "Where is my horse, which I have commanded to feed and take care of?" The same one answered: "He is dead." Oleg laughed and rebuked that magician, saying: "The magicians do not speak right, but all that is a lie: the horse is dead, and I am alive." And he ordered to saddle his horse: "May I see his bones." And he came to the place where his naked bones and naked skull lay, dismounted from the horse, laughed and said: "Should I accept death from this skull?" ... And from that he fell ill and died. All the people mourned him with great weeping, and carried him, and buried him on a mountain called Schekovitsa. There is his grave to this day, it is reputed to be Olegova's grave. And all the years of his reign were thirty and three. "

Appendix 4

Sample statutes

Appendix No. 5

V.M. Vasnetsov "Nestor the Chronicler"

Folklore as a way of mastering the world has long been an object of study by major researchers-folklorists. This is how such scientists as A.N. Afanasyev, O.F. Miller, F.I. Buslaev and others. However, keeping any text orally, folk memory easily changes it, constantly updating the ancient legend. "Historical memory was preserved and maintained only in that part of it that was relevant to society and had value in the present." The epic legend does not reflect, but models the past. Storytellers are influenced by the aesthetic and moral norms of their time. Therefore, to get an idea of ​​the nature and genre of early folklore monuments, images present in them, etc. it is possible only in the course of analyzing the texts preserved by the most ancient records of works of oral folklore. This article is an attempt to reconstruct the image of the Pechenegs in Old Russian folklore of the 11th-12th centuries. on the basis of those folklore monuments that were reflected in the "Tale of Bygone Years".

In modern folklore studies, as is generally accepted, there is a division of epics into four historical periods, the first of which dates back to long before the 9th century. However, this theory, based primarily on the a priori views of researchers, encounters a rather serious objection - the earliest recordings of epics (XVII-XVIII centuries) differ significantly from the recordings made in P.N. Rybnikov, A.F. Hilferding and other researchers of the XIX-XX centuries. The echoes of Russian epics found in the legends of European authors of the 13th-16th centuries are also significantly different from what we know in later records. There are also known examples of improvisation by storytellers, who, under the impression of what they saw, made changes to the text of the epic.Therefore, the most ancient legends are not preserved during oral transmission, and traces of these legends can only be found in the literary monuments of the era that interests the researcher. An attempt to search for monuments of folklore in the chronicle texts of the 15th-16th centuries. gave an interesting result in an article by D.S. Likhachev, which allows us to hope for the possibility of finding folklore works in the annals belonging to an earlier period.

The chronicle may well act as the keeper of the early monuments of folklore, since the ancient Russian scribe did not distinguish between the sources of his information. Therefore, the "Tale of Bygone Years" presents both data deducted from the written text, and information obtained from oral legends. Moreover, the very spectrum of genres to which the monuments of folklore, presented in the ancient Russian annals, belong, is distinguished by an extraordinary variety: songs of skald, sayings, toponymic legends, bylichki or simply stories about what happened.

What are the Pechenegs in Russian chronicles and folklore monuments? The author of "The Tale of Bygone Years" 15 times in various situations recalls this people, and four times these references are clearly folklore.

It is characteristic that the intonations of the annalistic messages about the Pechenegs are quite even. They are mentioned in an ethnographic survey among the nomadic peoples (“after these same Pechenesi came” and under 1096 among the peoples who came “from the Etrivskaya desert” or from the Ishmael clan, and the chronicler emphasizes that their appearance is associated with the end of the world by their contemporaries. the same chronicle contains a list of events in Russian-Polovtsian relations. So in 915 "the first Pechenez came to the Rus land, and made peace with Igor, and pyidosha to the Danube", where they took part in the war between the Bulgarians and the Byzantines, 9 in 920 BC. prince "Igor fought on the Pecheni", in 944, together with other tribes and peoples, they already participated in the war of Prince Igor against Byzantium, then there is a description of the Pechenezh raid on Kiev in 968 and the ambush set up in the winter of 971-972 by the Pechenezh Prince Kurei against Svyatoslav Igorevich.However, subsequent events show that the Pechenegs developed quite good relations with Prince Yaropolk and his son the Holy Regiment of the Damned. It was also advantageous for Yaropolk, who, in the event of the successful return of his father, would have to give him the Kiev table. It seems that Yaropolk's brother Oleg Svyatoslavich blamed both Yaropolk and Svineld for the death of his father, who was sent by Svyatoslav to Kiev for help, but never led the Kiev squad to the thresholds. This, perhaps, explains the murder of Svineld's son Oleg and the subsequent war between the brothers. In 980, Varyazhko suggested that Yaropolk flee to the Pechenegs and bring soldiers from there to fight Vladimir, and in 1018-1019, Yaropolk's son Svyatopolk fled to them and returned with an army against Yaroslav Vladimirovich. At the same time, Prince Vladimir and his descendants were in hostile relations with the Pechenegs. So in 992 the Pechenegs appeared on Trubezh, where they were defeated by the Kiev prince, 16 in 996 already Russian troops were defeated near Vasilev, and Prince Vladimir himself barely escaped, in 997 the Pechenegs besieged Belgorod and almost took him, 18 in 1015, Boris Vladimirovich leads an army going on a campaign against the Pechenegs, and in 1036 the Pechenegs were defeated near Kiev and since then were forced to wander the steppes. The last time in the "Tale of Bygone Years" the Pechenegs were mentioned in 1097, when Prince Vasilko, sharing his plans, said that having learned about the Pechenegs coming to him, he planned grandiose military campaigns against Poland, on the Danube and in the Polovtsian steppe.

And although Nikonovskaya and other later chronicles provide additional information about the Pechenegs dating back to the 11th-13th centuries, the information contained in the "Tale of Bygone Years" is an exhaustive body of knowledge of Russian contemporaries about this people. The new information was taken by the chroniclers of the 15th-16th centuries. not from written sources, but from epics. This information reflects only the ideas about the Pechenegs that existed in the era of the formation of the Moscow kingdom.

Mentions of the Pechenegs in the description of events that go beyond the chronological framework of the "Tale of Bygone Years" and cover 1121-1169 are fragmentary and indicate the gradual disappearance of the people and the fading of interest in it.

From the listed news of the "Tale of Bygone Years", the legends about the feat of the Kievite, who managed to give a message to his troops during the siege of Kiev by the Pechenegs in 968, information about the making of a bowl from the skull of Svyatoslav by the Pecheneg prince Kurei, and two epics - about feat kozhemyaki and about Belgorod jelly.

The first case of the appearance of the Pechenegs in folklore refers to the description of the siege of Kiev by them in 968. Ol-gom and Volodimer, in the city of Kiev ". When famine began in the city, one of the Kievites, who could speak Pechenezh, posing as a Pecheneg and pretending to be looking for his horse, reached the Dnieper and conveyed a call for help to the voivode Pretich. The voivode, posing as the commander of an advanced detachment in the army of Svyatoslav, allegedly achieved the lifting of the siege from Kiev. ends with a description of the ongoing siege25); 2) the convention of deceiving the Pechenegs by a Kievite (it is almost impossible to leave the surrounded city imperceptibly and impersonate one of the besiegers); 3) the absence of significant consequences as a result of the outwardly memorable exchange of gifts between the Pechenezh prince and Pretich; 4) using deception as a test of the wisdom and cunning of opponents. However, we have before us not one legend, but two mechanically connected legends - about a Kievite who sent news from the besieged city and about the exchange of gifts between the commanders of the warring parties. This is evidenced by the weak plot connection between the actions of both heroes, and the change in the course of the action of one of them to the other as the main person in the unfolding event. Obviously, the second legend is not fully reproduced in the "Tale of Bygone Years", since its meaning was to be revealed in the interpretation of gifts (compare the exchange of gifts between the Scythians and Persians by Herodotus), although we may have just a sketch reflecting the cultures of opposing peoples.

Under 971-972 In The Tale of Bygone Years, it is said that the Pechenegs ambushed Svyatoslav, who was returning from Bulgaria, at the Dnieper rapids, and that the Pechenezh prince Kurya, killing the Russian prince, “in his forehead eaten a cup, bound his forehead.” 27 Here, only one striking poetic detail is a bowl made from the skull of a defeated enemy. However, other sources did not reflect this memorable Pechenezh custom. At the same time, a similar custom was preserved in the story of Herodotus about the Scythians, and archaeological confirmation of its existence was found at the Belsk settlement.28 The ancient Russian chronicler gained knowledge about this custom not from the text of Herodotus' History, but, most likely, from its retelling separate fragments and transferred the realities that struck his imagination to the Pechenegs.

The following legend has already been transmitted in the "Tale of Bygone Years" in a more holistic manner: "AT 6500. I will come to him (Vladimir) from the Croatian war, and her liver came on the other side of Sula. Volodimer, however, will go against him, and I shit on Trubezh on the ford, where Pereyaslavl is now. " The Pechenezh prince suggested to Vladimir: “Let your husband out, and I’m mine, yes, boreta. Even if your husband strikes mine, let us not fight for three years; Should our husband strike, let us fight for three years. " Lacking a worthy fighter, "Volodimer is worthy of trouble," but "one old man will come to the prince," and offered his son as an adversary to the Pechenezh hero, who remained at home, but was so strong that he could "pretoriously cross the arm." At the suggestion of a young strongman, he is put to the test - he pulls out a piece from the body of an angry bull. Before the duel, the Pecheneg, "be great evil and terrible," laughed at the Russian - "be more middle dark," but in the fight he was strangled with his hands. After that, the Pechenegs fled, and the city of Pereyaslavl was founded on the site of the fight.

Everything in this story "The Tale of Bygone Years" testifies to the folklore origin of the legend. Called to explain the name of the city ("zane pereya glory"), mentioned, however, 85 years before the events described, it acts as a toponymic legend. But it clearly shows the features of an independent epic legend: the appearance of an enemy leader with a large army and a challenge to a duel; the absence of a worthy rival on our side and his appearance on the outside, an amazing test of the hero's strength, a victory over the enemy achieved with bare hands, the defeat and flight of the enemy army as a result of the death of the Pechenezh giant. Moreover, as in the epic, the hero emerges from a different, non-retinue, social environment (kozhemyak), he is smaller than his rival and, unlike his brothers, initially does not take part in the campaign (which brings this legend closer to the story of David and Goliath) , and his victory over the adversary ("And hawk, and for a while, hold tightly, and the boa of the liver in the hand to death. And hit it on the ground") resembles the victory of Hercules over Antaeus. The fact that the legend existed as an independent oral work can be seen from the evolution of the name of the hero in the annals dating back to different eras. So in the Rad-Zivilovskaya and Moscow-Academic Chronicles, which reflected the Vladimir vault of 1206, the phrase about the name of the city “after passing the glory of the youth” took the form “after Pereyaslav the youth was named”, and the Nikon Chronicle and the Book of Degrees of the 16th century. the hero is already called “Yan Usmosh-vets”, 34 reflecting in the nickname his craft as a tanner. Nikon Chronicle under 1001, 1004. cites additional, obviously folklore, news about Yan Usmoshvets, who helped Alyosha Popovich in the fight against the Pechenegs.35 Legends about this hero were preserved in Russian folklore in the 19th century.

The legend about Belgorod jelly, placed in the annals under 997, also has an oral origin. “Wither the liver, like a prince of Newton, and came and stasha near Bylorod. And I won’t get out of the city, and there’s a great pleasure in the city, and Volodymer don’t have any help, if he doesn’t have a fight, there’s a lot of cookies ”. The townspeople at the veche decided to surrender as a Pecheneg, but one elder, who was not present at the veche, opposed this. On his advice, the elders of the city gathered "a handful of oats, or wheat, whether bran", "and command the wives to put it in it, cook jelly in it, and command the wells to be mined, and insert a kad in there, and pour it in a kad." And command another well of fossils, and insert a kadi there, and command to seek honey. " In the morning, the Pechenegs were invited to the city, who were shown and given to taste "I feed from the ground." Taking a bowl for boiling jelly and honey fed, the Pechenezh ambassadors went to their princes, who, believing in the impossibility of starving Belgorod residents, lifted the siege.

The folklore origin of this legend is also quite obvious. It develops the theme of the wise advice of an elder who saves people at a time of famine. In contrast to the development of this plot in a fairy tale, hunger in the epic about Belgorod jelly was caused not by natural causes, but by an enemy siege. Therefore, the way out of this difficulty lies not in using unaccounted grain residues, but in deceiving the enemy. However, the overlap between the tale and the epic is well traced in the fact that the jelly, with which the Pechenegs were deceived, was cooked from the last "handful" of harvested grain. The main theme of the epic about Belgorod jelly was the test of the cunning and intelligence of the opposing sides. The folklore nature of this is confirmed by a certain conventionality of deception, the ease with which the Pechenegs believe in the reality that Belgorodians draw and feed from the well.

When did the legends about the struggle of the Russian people with the Pechenegs arise? These folklore monuments, depending on the time of recording, can be divided into two groups, and the texts included in different groups differ not only in the time of their existence, but also in the time in which the action unfolds, as well as in character, which, perhaps, is also one argument in favor of their difference in timing.

The legend of the heroic deed of the Kievite and information about the manufacture of a bowl from the skull of Svyatoslav by the Pechenezh prince Kureya were included in the Primary Code of 1093, which was reflected both in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and in the "Novgorod First Chronicle". The recording of folklore monuments reflects their condition at the time of fixation, and, therefore, at the end of the 11th century. only these legends existed, drawing attention not so much to the event itself, but to individual everyday details, while there were no detailed narratives (epics about the kozhemyak and about jelly). Events in these legends are tied to a period more distant from the narrator - to the reign of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. With this very plot, there is no exaggeration (the strength of the hero or the naivety of his opponents).

It is characteristic that the Old Russian legend about the cup made by the Pechenezh prince Kurei from the skull of Svyatoslav developed in the 15th century. The Ermolinskaya Chronicle, created in 1472, already contains the following detail: Prince Smoking not only “eaten a cup in his forehead, bound his forehead,” but left an inscription on it “looking for someone else, their own ruin.” The text of the inscription, reproduced in the collection of 1497, and in the Uvarov and Sophia annals: "desiring others, destroy your own", "wanting others more than strength, and destroy your own si for his much unfulfilledness." differently. In addition, the inscription clearly hears a paraphrase of the Kievites' reproaches addressed to Svyatoslav in 968: "You, prince, are looking for other lands and dishes, and you have been loving yours."

D.S. Likhachev believed that this insertion into the story about the bowl was made in the 11th-12th centuries. The basis for this conclusion was a phrase that continued the message about the inscription on the bowl in the collection of the Russian National Library (F. IV. 214, a chronicle similar to Tverskaya): Her princes and the princess are in the devil when they are caught, verbally speaking: what this man was, his forehead is, so wake up and grow from us. Likewise, the other howls of his foreheads are made of silver and I keep them with me, drinking from them. " This, according to the researcher, can serve as a confirmation of the reality of the existence of the bowl, and an indication of the appearance of information about it before the 12th century, since the last mentions of the Pechenegs in the Russian chronicle date back to 1169.

However, a close examination of this passage from the collection F.IV.214 casts doubt on the validity of D.S. Likhachev. Its author clearly does not represent that the Pechenegs were a nomadic people and did not have palaces. Hardly a contemporary could not have known such a detail. Moreover, the word "treasury" seems to be rather late. In the annals of the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. it was first used to describe the events of 1281 in the annals of the late 15th century. first mentions this word under 1298, and the derivative from it "treasury" - under 1154 But the word "treasury" is not in the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377. Mention of the manufacture of many bowls from the skulls of soldiers who died together with Prince Svyatoslav, This passage brings this passage even closer to the story of Herodotus about the Scythian customs: “With the heads of enemies (but not all, but the most fierce ones) they do this. First, the skulls are sawed off to the eyebrows and cleaned. The poor man covers the skull only from the outside with rawhide cowhide ... Rich people first cover the skull from the outside with rawhide, and then they also cover the inside with gilding and use it instead of a bowl. This is how the Scythians act even with the skulls of their relatives ... When visiting respected guests, the owner displays such skulls and reminds the guests that these relatives were his enemies and that he defeated them. " In the story of Herodotus, bowls are made from the skulls of not every killed enemy, but only the most fierce ones or those related to the victor, and, therefore, they are thus. turns out to be a kind of honor, which is incompatible with the inscription allegedly made on the bowl of Prince Kuri, which contains a clear reproach to Svyatoslav. Therefore, it can be assumed that the additions to the story about the death of Svyatoslav in the collection F.IV.214 appeared later. In addition, as already mentioned, mentions of the inscription on the bowl appear in the annals only from the 15th century. The development of the legend about the cup of Prince Kuri in the Russian chronicles of the 15th-16th centuries. once again confirms its folklore origin.

Oral legends, included in the "Tale of Bygone Years" already at the beginning of the 12th century, include the legend of the duel of the Kiev leatherworker with the Pechenezh hero and the legend of the Belgorod jelly. These epics at the end of the XI century. did not exist yet, since they did not make it into the Initial Code of 10931095. It is characteristic that both of these legends are dated to the time of the reign of Saint Vladimir.

What are the Pechenegs in the ancient monuments of Russian folklore? Like subsequent Russian epics, they turn out to be naive, easily fall for tricks. However, in the stories of The Tale of Bygone Years, which have a folklore origin, there is no pronounced rejection of the Pechenegs. Even such an eerie detail as making a bowl from the skull of the defeated prince Svyatoslav does not carry a negative attitude towards them, but acts simply as a vivid memorable detail. It is no coincidence that the development of this legend went not along the path of exposing the cruelty of the Pechenegs, but along the path of a clear expression of the reproach to the conqueror prince. The large number of Pechenegs did not attract the attention of the creators of the legends, since neither in the story about the siege of Kiev in 968, nor in the story about the cup of Prince Kuri, there is no mention of the number of Pechenegs. At the same time, in the retelling of the epics about the duel of the young kozhemyak with the Pecheneg, it is emphasized that the Russian hero is "bp bo middle heat", and his opponent "bp bo great evil and terrible." In the retelling of the legend about the Belgorod jelly, it is noted that “Volodimer doesn’t have any help, he doesn’t have a lot of money.” XII century. The bragging of the enemy who came to the Russian land with the war was also not characteristic of the early monuments of oral folk art, since in the legend about the feat of the Kievite, the Pechenezh prince treats the voivode Pretich with due caution and respect, and in the epic about the kozhemyak this topic is only outlined, by mentioning the fact that the Pecheneg laughed at the rival.

It is significant that in the "Tale of Bygone Years" there are practically no echoes of folk tales about the Polovtsians who roamed at the time of compiling this chronicle in the southern Russian steppes. And although the Pechenegs still lived near the Russian borders, their raids were already perceived as the past and could be subjected to epic comprehension. It was this circumstance that allowed the authors of the legends to admit inaccuracies, designating as the first appearance of the Pechenegs in Kiev in 968 and postponing the year of foundation of Pereyaslavl for 85 years. It is significant that the authors of the Primary Code used legends that referred the described events to 968-972, and the author of The Tale of Bygone Years supplemented the Initial Code with epics that referred the time of action to 992-997. In both cases, the authors were removed from the time of the described events by 120-125 years, i.e. for four generations. It is still difficult to say whether such a stable chronological distance is accidental, but one cannot but pay attention to this feature in the early monuments of Russian folklore.

The social stratum in which the folklore works that found themselves on the pages of the Russian chronicle were found is also quite accurately determined. Of course, these legends were performed in the retinue environment. But this does not mean that they could not penetrate into the common people. It is no coincidence that one of the first heroes of the Russian epic was a kozhemyaka, which once again confirms the high status of a craftsman in Ancient Rus.

The complexity of the Tale of Bygone Years is that it contains various genres and subordinates them to itself (both chronicles and documents). Folklore genres occupy a significant part.

Folklore is formed even before writing. This is a source for chroniclers (legends, legends, proverbs, sayings) Their formation takes place in antiquity.

Folk memory is the only archive of folk art.

Questions of the influence of literature on folklore and vice versa: Adrianova-Peretz.

This is a problem of two artistic methods, two worldviews. Most of the writers were influenced by Christianity. Different heroes and different ideals appear than they were before. A writer and a folk poet do not always agree on what has been written. The hero of the epic wins due to his certain qualities.

2 forms of storytelling of the 11th century, the convergence of literature with folklore - 1) the transfer of folklore plots and motives, pictorial means into literature, without changing their ideological essence.

2) mastering the artistic method of folk poetry by literature.

The tale of bygone years is gradually taking shape! And conveys the popular point of view. Gradually, the outlook of the chroniclers becomes wider. The ideal is the former unity of Russia.

9-10 century: the more distant the era is from the chronicler, the greater the attraction of folk art.

1)))) - Ritual folklore.

One of the forms is myths: 1071 The Magi tell Jan Ushatich och a lot, for example, about the creation of the world (God washed in a bath, dropped soap on the ground, etc.)

The chroniclers were monks.

2))) Conspiracy spells. For example, Yaroslavna's cry is a poetic rethinking of the conspiracy.

Funeral parables in the annals are associated with paganism. - individual-About Vasilka Terebovolsky

Collective - about Oleg.

The chronicle text is imbued with the idea of ​​statehood.

3))))))) Sayings and riddles. Classification of proverbs: 1) historical. 2) military 3) political 4) household.

There is a moment of fabulousness in Olga's 4 places. A gradual decrease in the fairy element. The emergence of patriotism! And Olga's suits are a transitional type of storytelling. There is a dialogue! It is of folklore origin, and the difference between folklore and written dialogue is shown.

The riddle is being used as a secret language!

There are many allegories in Olga's revenge. The warriors don't know about anything. There is no deception - attribution to the tale.

Olga imitates wedding rituals. Olga herself brings her riddles to life (orders the boat to be thrown into the pit)

4))) Legends and legends. In the legends there is an opportunity to confirm the fidelity of the stories.

There is a controversy, whether the druzhina songs can be the source of the chronicle. The more artistry is present, the less the chronicler will pay attention to them. It is impossible to accurately determine the form of folk tradition!

Legends seem to be on the verge - these are historical generalizations. Later historical traditions already have a plot. Legends are associated with cities, burial grounds, villages.

5))) Dialogue from folklore came into the annals. All oral practice goes into the annals. The dialogue is easily imaginable and dramatic. There is a dialogue in Olga's 3 rooms.

An important difference is that there is no metaphorical language. There is an element of retordation.

6))) Epics. Traditions 922 How the Pechenegs came to Russia bears the stamp of a genuine folk ideology.

Why do we turn to the literature of the distant past? What does it give the modern reader?

First of all, of course, a cultured person must know his history. Acquaintance with history teaches a person to appreciate the beauty that the people have created.

So, dear sixth graders, we offer you to "plunge" into history, look at it through the eyes of your ancestors, feel yourself a participant in that life and those events in order to comprehend the spiritual wealth of ancient Russian literature.

WRITING- a set of written means of communication, including the concepts of a system of graphics, alphabet and spelling of any language or group of languages, united by one writing system or one alphabet. (Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978).

Writing is a great human invention. Each nation strove to form and develop its native language, to create a written language.

It has been proven that writing in Russia existed even before the adoption of Christianity, but it was a primitive letter: they carved signs on a tree, and also used Greek and Latin letters. But this was not very convenient, since these letters and signs did not convey the peculiarities of the speech of the Slavs (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Writing of the Slavs. "Goroushna" - amphora with the oldest Russian inscription ()

After the adoption of Christianity (and this happened in 988 during the reign of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in Kiev), it was necessary to hold services according to the holy books, but they were all either in Greek, or in Latin or Bulgarian. These languages ​​were incomprehensible to most of the Slavs, which caused difficulties during the church service.

The brothers Cyril and Methodius, who came from a noble Greek family living in Macedonia in the city of Thessaloniki, were called to Russia. And in 863, Cyril, with the help of his brother Methodius, as well as his disciples, compiled the Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel, the Apostle and the Psalter into the Slavic language. Brothers monks are canonized, and in Bulgaria there is even an order named after them. May 24 is considered the day of Saints Cyril and Methodius and is celebrated in our country as the Day of Slavic Literature and Culture. Since 1991, this holiday has been given the status of a state one. In 1992, a monument to Cyril and Methodius was unveiled in Moscow on the Slavic square at the foot of it, an inextinguishable icon lamp was installed - a sign of eternal memory. As already mentioned, the first books were translated church books, but since the eleventh century Russia has its own Russian literature. These works were written by highly educated monks or noble people.

Why did you need to create your own works?

The purpose of Old Russian literature is to teach, instruct, educate. Russia had its own great heroes, by whose example it was possible to teach piety, from which one could take an example. Significant historical events took place that the Russians should have known about and be proud of them, this fostered patriotism and a desire to defend the homeland, to give their lives for it. Old Russian literature lasted until the end of the seventeenth century.

On the high bank of the Dnieper stood the capital of ancient Russia - Kiev. The golden domes of white-stone churches towered over the poor man's hut and over the princely chambers. We entered the city through the Golden Gate. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Kiev became the cultural center of ancient Russia. The prince read a lot and invited scribes who translated various books from Greek, Bulgarian, Latin into Russian. At the same time, chronicles began to be created.

CHRONICLES is a description of historical events by year.

CHRONICLER- the compiler of the chronicle.

CHRONICLES- compilation of the chronicle.

Each chronicle began with the words "In summer", and the word "summer" means a year, which is why we call these works chronicles. The chronicler describes the events of his time and past years so that people know what works and deeds our land was created, so that they love it and learn from the example of past generations. However, the chronicler not only glorified the defenders of the homeland, but also condemned those princes who rose up against their brothers.

The first chronicler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon (Fig. 2), he was called the great. At the end of his life, when he became abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, he compiled the chronicle "The First History of Russia." Scientists believe it was 1073. His work was continued by other chroniclers, and in the first quarter of the twelfth century, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor (Fig. 4) compiled "The Tale of Bygone Years" (Fig. 3), a great work of ancient Russian art. This story has come down to us, rewritten and partly modified by the monk of the Vydubitsky monastery Sylvester, so we can conclude that the "Tale of Bygone Years" is the fruit of the long labors of several generations of chroniclers. The name "The Tale of Bygone Years" in science was entrenched in the eighteenth century, and before that this work was called "Behold the Tale of Bygone Years, where the Russian land came from, who began to reign in Kiev first and from where the Russian land began to eat."

Rice. 2. The chronicler of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon ()

Rice. 3. The Tale of Bygone Years ()

Rice. 4. Nestor the Chronicler ()

The Tale of Bygone Years begins with the Biblical Flood, when Noah distributed the territories of the earth among his sons. The territory, on which the Slavic tribes later spread, was given to Japheth, that is, from Japheth and the Slavic family went. Then there are records about the Slavic tribes, about their origin, about the territories in which they lived, about manners and customs, tells about the journey of the Apostle Andrew across Russia and about the emergence of Kiev.

Not only princes, but also ordinary people are described in the Tale of Bygone Years. One of these heroes is the young man Kozhemyak, that was his name because he was engaged in leather dressing (in order for the skin to become soft and elastic, it was kneaded for a long time).

THE STORY- narrative and hagiographic genre of Old Russian literature in the Kiev and Novgorod periods using historical and legendary materials. (Poetic dictionary. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Kvyatkovsky AP, scientific ed. I. Rodnyanskaya, 1966).

Let's read "The Legend of Kozhemyak":

« In the summer of 992. Prince Vladimir had just returned from the war when the Pechenegs attacked Russia. Vladimir (Fig. 5) spoke out against them and met them on the bank of the Trubezh River near the ford. And Vladimir stood on this side, and the Pechenegs - on the other, and neither ours dared to go to the other side, nor those - to this.

Rice. 5. Kiev Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko) ()

And the prince of Pechenezh drove up to the river, summoned Vladimir and said to him: “Let go of your warrior, and I - yours, let them fight. If your husband throws mine on the ground, then we will not fight for three years, but if our husband throws yours on the ground, we will ruin you for three years. "

And they parted. And Vladimir, returning to his camp, sent heralds with the words: "Is there not such a husband who would have grappled with the Pecheneg?" But no one was found.

The next morning, the Pechenegs arrived and brought their husband, but ours did not. And Vladimir began to grieve, sending his entire army. And an old man came to the prince and said to him:

- Prince! I have one younger son at home. Since childhood, no one has thrown him to the ground. Once I scolded him, and he crumpled the skin, so he got angry and tore the skin with his hands.

Hearing about this, the prince was delighted and sent for him. And they brought him to the prince, and the prince told him everything. The young man said:

- Prince! I don't know if I can fight him - try me. Isn't there a big and strong bull?

And they found a big and strong bull. And he commanded to enrage him. They cauterized the bull with a hot iron and let it go, and the bull ran past him, and he grabbed the bull by the side with his hand, and tore out the skin and meat as much as his hand grabbed. And Vladimir said to him: "You can fight with him."

The next morning, the Pechenegs came and began to call: “Where is my husband? Ours is ready! " The Pecheneg was very large and terrible. And Vladimir's husband came out, and saw his Pecheneg and laughed, for he was of average height. And they measured the space between the two troops, and let them go against each other. And they grabbed, and began to squeeze each other tightly. And the young man strangled the Pechenezhin with his hands to death. And threw him to the ground. There was a cry, and the Pechenegs ran, and the Russians chased them and drove them away.

Vladimir was glad, and he founded the city by that ford, and named it Pereyaslavl, for that youth took over the glory. And Vladimir made him a great husband and his father too. And Vladimir returned to Kiev with victory and great glory».

We see: the old husband and his son are simple, not noble people.

Why did Vladimir choose the young man Kozhemyaku?

Probably, first of all, the father's story about the skin influenced, because it is almost impossible to break the skin, this can only be done very the strong man... For the sake of victory over the enemy, the father is ready to sacrifice his son, he loves him, is proud of him, but gives to the prince for a feat in the name of the Motherland. Kozhemyaka is not sure that he can defeat the Pecheneg, so he asks to test him - this showed both his courage and responsibility.

Prince Vladimir, the old father and the young man Kozhemyak are ready to sacrifice their lives for the sake of the Motherland, this manifested their patriotism, devotion to their native land, love for it and readiness for self-sacrifice.

It was important for the chronicler to tell this particular story as proof that there are great heroes in Russia, there are heroes who are not inferior to the heroes of other peoples, who continue the exploits of glorious ancestors.

In the chronicle legend there is one significant difference from the epic: the role of a hero is not a professional warrior, but a simple artisan: he wins thanks to his hands, which are accustomed to crushing his skin and therefore especially strong (however, in the chronicle story, the real power of Kozhemyaka is clearly exaggerated - in the spirit of epics or fairy tales). The most important difference from the epic is that in the chronicle record the feat of an unknown youth-hero is correlated with a precisely dated, actually former historical event and, as it were, documented.

More about Cyril and Methodius

Rice. 6. Icon-painting of brothers Cyril and Methodius ()

From the biographies of the creators of Slavic writing, we know that the brothers Cyril and Methodius (Fig. 6) were from the city of Thessaloniki, now it is the city of Thessaloniki. Methodius was the elder brother of seven brothers, and Constantine (later Cyril) was the younger. Constantine was educated at the court of the emperor of Constantinople: he studied theology and philosophy, he was even called a philosopher, that is, a sage. He mastered several languages, at the end of his studies he was appointed curator of the library, then he became a teacher of philosophy at the Higher School of Constantinople. A brilliant career awaited him, but he preferred to retire to a monastery.

However, Constantine did not manage to spend much time in solitude - as the best preacher, he was often sent to neighboring countries. These trips were successful: once traveling to the Khazars, Constantine visited the Crimea, there he baptized about two hundred people, and also took with him the captured Greeks who were released.

But Constantine was in poor health, and at forty-two he became very ill. Sensing his imminent end, he accepted monasticism and, as already mentioned, changed his worldly name Constantine to Cyril.

After that, he lived another fifty days, said goodbye to his brother and disciples, and quietly died on the fourteenth of February 869.

Image of Cyrillic and Glagolitic

Cyril and Methodius created the Slavic alphabet, although the question of who really is the creator of the Cyrillic alphabet remains unresolved. There were two Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic (Fig. 7) and Glagolitic (Fig. 8). The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to be more ancient. The Glagolitic alphabet did not take root in Russia, although it was known.

It is believed that Cyril created the verb, and the Cyrillic alphabet, which we still use today, was created by one of his students, Clement, who named it Cyrillic after his teacher.

There are forty-three letters in Cyrillic, some of which are numerical, that is, some letters denote numbers. The Cyrillic alphabet existed practically unchanged until the time of Peter Ι, with him changes were made in the spelling of some letters, and eleven letters were completely excluded from the alphabet. In 1918, the Cyrillic alphabet lost four more letters: i("And" with a dot), ѵ (Izhitsu), ѳ (fit) and ѣ (yat).

Rice. 7. Cyrillic ()

Rice. 8. Glagolitic text ()

Bibliography

1. History, culture and traditions of the Ryazan region. How did writing appear among the ancient Slavs [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: ().
2. Cultural heritage of the Smolensk land. "Gorushna" is an amphora with the oldest Russian inscription [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: ().
3. Nestor the Chronicler. The Tale of Bygone Years [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: ().
4. Orthodox calendar. Reverend Nestor the Chronicler [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: ( A source).

Homework

1. Prepare an artistic retelling of "The Legend of Kozhemyak".
2. Assignment of choice

   And if you like to draw, we suggest creating a portrait of Kozhemyaka. Try to convey the character of the hero in your portrait: courage, modesty and love for the homeland.

   B If you like to compose, then write "Chronicle of one day."

   Imagine yourself as a chronicler. To do this, during the day, write down everything that happened that day in the world, in our country, in your city (village) and even in your class. TV shows, newspapers and magazines, conversations with parents and peers, as well as your personal observations can become material for the chronicle.

   In a year 20 ..., a day ...