The nature of Eastern Europe and its features. Territory. Natural conditions and resources c) directions of specialization of agriculture
The main part of this subcontinent of Eurasia is located within Russia and is discussed in detail in the section Physical geography of Russia and the USSR. Beyond the borders of our country, it includes the southwestern part of the Russian Plain within Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova and the so-called Steppe Crimea - the flat part of the Crimean Peninsula (see the map of the physical-geographical zoning of Eurasia with links to photographs of the nature of this region). Under conditions of leveled relief, zoning of the natural soil and vegetation cover is clearly visible on platform structures, associated with an increase in heat and a decrease in moisture in the direction from northwest to southeast. The high natural resource potential has led to long-term and intensive human development of these areas, as a result of which natural ecosystems have undergone significant changes.
Southern coast of Ukraine washed the waters of the Black Sea and the Azov Sea connected to it by the Kerch Strait (the latter is considered by some researchers as a huge estuary - the ancient Don valley flooded by the sea). These are the most isolated and isolated marine areas of the Atlantic Ocean. Through a complex system of straits they communicate with the Mediterranean Sea, which connects them with the World Ocean. The area of the Black Sea is 422 thousand km2: its average depth is 1315 m, and the maximum in the center of the deep-sea basin is 2210 m.
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov is the shallowest and one of the smallest seas on the globe, its area is only 39 thousand km 2 with an average depth of 7 m and a maximum depth of up to 15 m (in the central part). In the west, the Arabat Strelka sand spit separates a system of shallow bays with a total area of more than 2,500 km 2 from the main water area. This is the so-called Sivash Bay (Rotten Sea), which annually receives up to 1.5 km 3 of Azov water. As a result of evaporation in shallow pools, a saline solution (brine) with a salinity of up to 170% o is formed, which serves as a source of table salt, bromine, magnesium sulfate and other valuable chemicals. The shores of the Kerch Peninsula are not so shallow, but even here in the coastal areas the depths rarely reach Yum.
The shores of the Black Sea are slightly indented; the only large peninsula is the Crimean peninsula. The eastern, southern and significant parts of the northern coast are mountainous; the shelf zone here is only a few kilometers long. On the southern coast there are Samsun Bay and Sinop Bay. The largest bays - Odessa, Karkinitsky and Kalamitsky - are located in the northwestern part of the sea entirely within the shelf. The main part of the river flow comes here with the waters of the most significant rivers of the Black Sea basin - the Danube, Dnieper and Dniester. In the east, the Inguri, Rioni, Chorokh and numerous small rivers flowing from the slopes of the Caucasus mountain ranges flow into the Black Sea.
The significant distance from the ocean determines the pronounced continental climate features of the Black Sea and Azov water areas - significant temperature fluctuations between seasons and Not a large number of precipitation (300-500 mm per year over the Sea of Azov and 600-700 mm per year over the Black Sea). In winter, northeastern winds often blow over the seas, often reaching storm force, and the wave height in open parts of the waters can be 7 m or more. The southwestern and southeastern parts of the Black Sea are the calmest; waves above 3 m are very rare here.
In winter, in almost the entire water area of the Azov Sea, the temperature of surface waters is close to 0 °C. Near the Kerch Strait it is 1... 3 °C. In the Black Sea, the surface temperature increases in the direction from northwest to southeast, reaching 7...8 °C in the central and 9...10 °C in its southeastern parts. Ice forms on the Azov Sea every year; the Black Sea practically does not freeze, with the exception of a narrow coastal strip in the northwest. In summer, the surface waters of both seas warm up greatly - up to 23... 26 °C. Despite significant evaporation, seasonal fluctuations in salinity are almost not observed; in the open part of the Black Sea it is 17.5-18% o, and in the Azov Sea - 10-11% o.
Until the beginning of the 50s. last century, the Sea of Azov was distinguished by exceptionally high biological productivity, which was greatly facilitated by the supply of large amounts of nutrients with the runoff of the Don, Kuban and other rivers. The ichthyofauna of the sea consisted of 80 species, including valuable commercial species (pike perch, bream, sturgeon). Intensive development of agricultural activities in the Azov Sea basin and regulation of large rivers has led to a reduction in the volume of flow and reduced the supply of nutrients. As a result, the food supply was reduced, the area of spawning grounds decreased, and the biological productivity of the sea fell sharply, which was greatly facilitated by the progressive pollution of waters with pesticides, phenols, and in some areas, oil products.
Black Sea
A distinctive feature of the Black Sea is the two-layer structure of its water column. Only the top layer to a depth of 50 m is well saturated with oxygen. Then its content sharply decreases down to zero at depths of 100-150 m. At the same depths, hydrogen sulfide appears, the amount of which increases to 8-10 mg/l at a depth of about 1500 m. The main source of hydrogen sulfide formation in the Black Sea is considered to be the reduction of sulfates during decomposition organic residues under the influence of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Further oxidation of hydrogen sulfide is difficult due to the slow exchange of water and limited convective mixing. Between the oxygen and hydrogen sulfide zones there is an intermediate layer, which represents the lower boundary of life in the sea.
The diverse flora and fauna of the Black Sea are almost entirely concentrated in the upper layer, constituting only 10-15% of its volume. Deep waters are inhabited only by anaerobic bacteria. The ichthyofauna includes about 160 species of fish. Among them are representatives of the ancient fauna, preserved from the time of the existence of the Ponto-Caspian basin - sturgeon, some species of herring. The most common fish are of Mediterranean origin - anchovy, mullet, horse mackerel, redfish, flounder, etc. Some Mediterranean species (bonito, mackerel, tuna) enter the Black Sea only in summer. Anchovy, horse mackerel and sprat, as well as the Black Sea katran shark are of commercial importance.
Increasing water pollution is also characteristic of the Black Sea, especially in coastal areas experiencing significant anthropogenic pressure (water areas adjacent to large ports, recreational areas, estuary areas). There has been a massive development of phytoplankton up to the appearance of the so-called “red tides”; since 1970, death of aquatic organisms has been regularly observed. As a result, the species diversity of plants and animals is reduced, and commercial fish stocks are reduced. The most negative changes are typical for the northwestern part of the Black Sea water area.
Geological structure. At the base of the most extensive Russian Plain in Eurasia is the ancient (Precambrian) East European Platform. Despite minor fluctuations in absolute heights, the relief of the southwestern part of the plain includes various orographic elements that largely inherit the tectonic features of the platform. The Ukrainian crystalline shield and the Ukrainian anteclise that frames it in relief correspond to the Dnieper and Azov uplands with absolute heights of 300-400 m, as well as the Codra upland on the territory of Moldova. Unlike the Baltic shield, the Ukrainian shield is covered with a thin cover of sedimentary deposits; crystalline rocks (granites and gneisses) come to the surface mainly near river valleys. The Lower Proterozoic metamorphic complex includes the iron ore formation of Krivoy Rog and Kremenchug, which has been actively developed for many decades. In the rest of the territory, the crystalline foundation of the platform lies at a depth of up to 1000 m, in the north-west in the region of the Belarusian anteclise - no deeper than 500 m. The depressions of the crystalline foundation, overlain by thick layers of horizontally occurring sedimentary rocks, correspond in relief to extensive stratified lowlands - the Black Sea and Dnieper .
The plains of the Crimean Peninsula also have a platform base, but unlike the territories adjacent to them from the north, this is not an ancient, but an epi-Hercynian Scythian platform, formed at the end of the Paleozoic - the beginning of the Mesozoic. The steppe Crimea is a flat plain composed of marine Neogene and continental Quaternary sediments on the surface. In the west of the Crimean peninsula there is the Tarkhankut uplift with a gently undulating topography and coastal cliffs up to 30-50 m high.
The Donetsk Ridge stretches along the southern border of the Russian Plain - a folded mountain structure of Paleozoic age, which subsequently experienced significant peneplanation, but even now reaches a height of more than 350 m. Thanks to deep erosional dissection with an incision depth of up to 150-200 m, the relief takes on a low-mountain appearance. The Carboniferous rocks contain thick coal strata of the Donetsk basin, which have now been largely worked out
The main territory of the southwestern part of the Russian Plain in its development did not experience either direct or indirect influence of Quaternary glaciation. The relief is predominantly erosive valley-beam. It is characterized by wide, well-developed river valleys with several terraces above the floodplain; A dense network of ravines and gullies radiates from them to the watersheds. The interfluve plain spaces are covered with a continuous cover of loess rocks - typical loess in the west of Ukraine and loess-like loams in the eastern regions. The thickness of loess deposits varies significantly, reaching 30-40 m in the Black Sea lowland. A characteristic element of the relief of lowland watersheds are depressions, or steppe saucers - shallow, round-shaped depressions with a flat, often swampy bottom. Their formation is usually associated with the development of suffusion-subsidence processes in loess rocks.
Relief. In the topography of the northern part of the territory within Belarus, glacial and water-glacial forms can be traced, formed during various stages of the Quaternary glaciation. Northern Belarus is an area of young hilly-moraine relief of the last (Valdai) stage. Terminal moraine ridges, sandy outwash plains, and swampy glaciolacustrine lowlands are well preserved here. The appearance of the territory is determined by thousands of large and small lakes, due to the abundance of which it received the name Belarusian Lake District, which in the west joins the lake districts of Poland and Germany within the Central European Plain.
To the south of Minsk there is an area of undulating-moraine relief of the Moscow stage of the Quaternary glaciation. Most of the territory is smoothed secondary moraine plains covered with cover loams. Even further south, in the area of Dnieper glaciation, sandy outwash plains of the Pripyat and Desninsky forests predominate, alternating with secondary moraine plains, largely modified by erosion processes.
Climatic conditions. The climatic conditions of the southwestern part of the Russian Plain and the north of the Crimean Peninsula are determined by the influx of marine polar air from the Atlantic Ocean, as well as periodic incursions of arctic (from the north) and tropical (from the south) air masses, for which there are practically no orographic obstacles in this flat territory . In winter, air temperatures vary from -2...3 °C in the Black Sea lowland and Crimea to -7 °C in Belarus and -8... -9 °C in eastern Ukraine. Thin snow cover persists for 2-3 months. in the southwestern regions of Ukraine and 3-4 months. in Belarus. Summer in Ukraine is hot, with average July temperatures ranging from 19 to 23 °C. In Belarus, summer temperatures do not exceed an average of 18 °C. The average annual precipitation in the territory under consideration decreases from the northwest to the southeast, as the influence of the Atlantic weakens and the transformation of marine polar air into continental air occurs. At the heights of Belarus, 600-800 mm of precipitation falls per year; most of Ukraine receives 400-600 mm of precipitation per year. In the Black Sea Lowland and in the Steppe Crimea, the amount of precipitation does not exceed 300-400 mm per year.
South of the conventional line passing through Lutsk, Zhitomir and Kyiv, the positive moisture balance gives way to a negative one. The unfavorable ratio of heat and moisture is aggravated by the great instability of moisture. The most dangerous climatic phenomena in the south of the territory under consideration include periodically recurring droughts (spring, summer or autumn), as well as hot winds - hot and dry winds blowing at high speed and literally burning the foliage of trees and crops.
Natural water. Most of the rivers of Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova belong to the Black Sea basin. Of the large rivers, only the Neman and Western Dvina flowing through the northern regions of Belarus flow into the Baltic Sea. Almost all rivers belong to the predominantly snow-fed type with spring floods. In the north, rain and groundwater play a significant role in feeding rivers, so the rivers here are full of water, with a relatively even distribution of flow across the seasons. In contrast, the rivers of the south of the Russian Plain are characterized by low water content and a high proportion (up to 80%) of snow water in their diet. The short period of rapid spring flood accounts for the overwhelming majority of the runoff, and in the summer even large rivers catastrophically reduce water flow due to high evaporation, although it is during this season that the greatest amount of precipitation falls. During the summer heat, the short watercourses of the Steppe Crimea become so shallow that they often do not reach the sea.
The most significant river in the southwest of the Russian Plain is the Dnieper. It originates in Russia, on the Valdai Hills, near the sources of the Volga and Western Dvina. For more than 2,200 km, the river flows mainly in the meridional direction - from north to south, crossing increasingly arid regions, and flows into the Black Sea, forming the so-called Dnieper estuary.
The different histories of the development of the northern and southern parts of the territory under consideration in Quaternary times and the well-defined climatic zonation within the vast plains led to a significant but natural spatial differentiation of the soil cover, natural vegetation and fauna.
Vegetation. North of Kyiv the natural vegetation cover was dominated by mixed forests from spruce, pine, oak and other broad-leaved species. The distribution area of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) extends into the western, more humid areas; to the east, spruce-oak forests on soddy-podzolic soils predominate. Sandy outwash plains are covered mainly with pine forests. The territory is characterized by significant swampiness, especially in the area of woodlands - flat, poorly drained lowlands with widespread development of lowland tall grass, sedge and hypno-sedge bogs, as well as swampy black alder and birch forests.
The forest composition is dominated by oak forests, which gravitate towards more humid habitats (river terraces, slopes and bottoms of ravines, etc.). On the Volyn and Podolsk uplands, under conditions of good moisture and dissected relief, they were the dominant type of vegetation. Along with English oak (Quercus robur), ash, Norway maple and elm grow in the first tree layer; the second tier is represented by fruit trees (pear, apple) and various types of maple. A well-developed shrub layer of hazel, euonymus, honeysuckle, as well as broad grass with lily of the valley, hoofed grass, violet (Viola mirabilis), hairy sedge (Carex pilosa) and other nemoral species.
Currently, a significant part of mixed forests has been cleared; the forest cover of the territory does not exceed 30%. The place of highly productive spruce and oak forests was taken by arable lands, meadows and other agricultural lands, and often secondary forests of birch and aspen and even shrub thickets with a predominance of hazel.
To the south, an increase in climate aridity significantly limits the possibilities for the growth of woody vegetation. At first, the forests acquire a sparse, “island” character, alternating with vast areas of mixed-grass steppes. For similar forest-steppe The landscapes of Ukraine and Moldova are characterized by gray forest soils and chernozems (typical and leached) - the most fertile soils on the globe, developing on loess and loess-like loams. The very name of chernozems indicates the accumulation of a large amount of humus in them, which is facilitated by an active humus-accumulative process, covering the soil thickness to a depth of 1-1.5 m.
Well-drained and therefore drier watersheds in their natural state were covered with continuous herbaceous vegetation, which was characterized by exceptionally high species diversity. The preserved areas of mixed-grass steppes that have survived to this day amaze the eye with their color palette: the yellow of the blooming spring adonis (Adonis vernalis) gives way to the delicate blue of the forget-me-not (Myosotis alpestris), and then the mountain clover (Trifolium alpestre) seems to cover the ground with a snow-white blanket.
Before the start of economic development of the territory, the Codra Hills on the territory of Moldova were covered with broad-leaved forests with a predominance of beech, growing on brown forest soils and representing the eastern outpost of typical Western European vegetation.
The Black Sea lowland and the areas of the Dnieper and Azov uplands adjacent to it from the north and east are practically devoid of tree vegetation, with the exception of floodplain and ravine oak-broad-leaved forests. Forb-fescue-feather grass steppes the southern slopes of the hills are replaced by fescue-feather grass steppes on southern chernozems with low humus content. In the south, up to the coast of the Black and Azov Seas, fescue-feather grass and wormwood-grass steppes stretch on dark chestnut, sometimes solonetzic soils. Typical steppe plants are various types of feather grass (Stipa), fescue (Festuca valesiaca), wheatgrass (Agropyrum), steppe grass (Koeleria gracilis) and other perennial turf grasses. In spring, ephemerals and ephemeroids bloom colorfully in the steppes - tulips, irises, stoneflies (Erophila verna), goose onions (Gagea bulbifera). The lower reaches of the Dniester, Southern Bug, Dnieper and other rivers of the Black Sea steppes are characterized by floodplains - long-term flooded floodplains with dense thickets of reeds, reeds and cattails, sedge swamps and damp meadows.
Animal world. Animal world mixed forests characterized by a combination of typical Eurasian species (brown bear, fox, elk, ermine) and species that gravitate towards western broad-leaved forests (European roe deer, pine marten, black polecat, various dormouse, etc.). Due to the long-term economic development of the territory, some animals have disappeared (sable, tarpan, tur), others have become very rare and are taken under protection. An example of successful efforts to restore seemingly lost species is the re-acclimatization of the river beaver (Castor fiber).
In the animal world forest-steppes There was a good combination of typically forest species (elk, marten, squirrel, hazel grouse, black grouse), typically steppe species (ground squirrel, marmot, steppe polecat, bustard and little bustard), as well as forest-steppe (forest-field) animals. The latter include the wild goat (Capreolus capreolus), the common hedgehog, the dark polecat, the black grouse, the goldfinch, etc. western regions a large number of Western European species lived (European ground squirrel, wild cat, mole, etc.).
Majority steppe animals are classified as burrowers, since the lack of natural shelters forces them to provide protection from predators. In the steppes there are numerous ground squirrels, jerboas, pikas, and larks; The corsac fox (Vulpes corsac), steppe eagle (Aquila rapax), and steppe harrier (Circus macrourus) live here. Close trophic connections unite reptiles (steppe viper, snakes, grass snakes) and various mouse-like rodents (voles, steppe pieds, etc.).
Detailed solution to paragraph § 42 on geography for 10th grade students, authors Yu. N. Gladky, V. V. Nikolina 2013
- Gdz Geography simulator for grade 10 can be found
1. Find the countries of Central-Eastern Europe on the political map. Assess their political – and economic-geographical position.
The countries of this region have a lot in common in historical and socio-economic development. After World War II, they were united by belonging to the socialist economic system, which led to stable economic ties with each other and the USSR. Most of them were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the political bloc of the Warsaw Pact. Currently, these countries are undergoing radical economic transformations, as a result of which their ties with the developed countries of Western Europe have expanded. Until recently, the political situation in the countries of Eastern Europe remained extremely tense. As a result of military operations, the economies of the countries - the former republics of Yugoslavia - suffered significantly. The countries of Eastern Europe are a single territorial area stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The main features of the economic and geographical position of the countries of Eastern Europe are: the coastal position of most states; the possibility of access to the sea along the Danube waterway for countries that do not have direct access to the sea (Hungary, Slovakia); neighborly position of countries in relation to each other; transit position on the way between Western European countries and CIS countries. All these features create good preconditions for the development of integration processes.
2. What new states have formed in the region since the 90s. XX century?
As a result of the collapse of the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, the following countries were formed in the region: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro.
3. Why did the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe never form a monolithic unity economically?
Economically, the former socialist countries never represented a monolithic unity (and Yugoslavia and Albania were not even members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). In terms of transport, only coastal and inland countries were more or less closely connected, and then only “in pairs” (two Baltic, two Black Sea, two Mediterranean, as well as Hungary and Czechoslovakia). Together they (with the exception of Albania) were connected by a network of transcontinental railways. The Danube flows through the territory of only three countries in the region, and is a border river for two more countries. The international network of roads of the appropriate class was extremely underdeveloped. Economic cooperation between individual countries of socialist Eastern Europe was also hampered by existing territorial “inconsistencies” (for example, in relations between Hungary and Romania, the problem of Transylvania, which was once an integral part of Austria-Hungary, and is now part of Romania).
4. What own* mineral resources and natural conditions of the region contribute to the development of the economies of its member countries?
The natural prerequisites for the development of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe are quite favorable, although there is a certain shortage natural resources. First of all, this concerns mineral resources. Their supply is low. The main reserves are concentrated: hard coal - in Poland (Upper Silesian basin) and in the Czech Republic (Ostrava-Karwin basin); oil and gas - in Romania; hydropower resources - in Bulgaria, Macedonia; iron ore - in Romania, Slovakia, as well as in the countries of the former Yugoslavia; copper - in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria; bauxite - in Hungary; chromites - in Albania; oil shale - in Estonia; sulfur and potassium salts - in Poland and Romania. Fertile soils are located on the plains of Eastern Europe, primarily in the Middle Danube Lowland. Combined with favorable agro-climatic resources, they provide a good basis for development Agriculture(with the exception of the Baltic countries, in Karaganda agro-climatic resources are insufficient). Water resources are represented by large river systems: Danube, Vistula, Oder, etc. The provision of forest resources is generally insufficient for the development of forestry; the bulk of them are in secondary mixed-deciduous forests. Only in the Baltic countries are coniferous forests of industrial importance. Natural and recreational resources are widely represented. These include, first of all, the coasts of the Black, Adriatic and Baltic seas, Lake Balaton in Hungary, and the Tatra Mountains in the Czech Republic.
6. Describe the region’s transport network.
The countries of the region (with the exception of Albania) are connected together by a network of transcontinental railways. The Danube flows through the territory of only three countries in the region, and is a border river for another four countries. The international network of roads of the appropriate class is insufficiently developed.
7. Give a description of one of the countries in the region according to the plan of the “Step by Step” section on p. 164-165.
The Czech Republic is a country in the center of Europe. The country borders Germany, Poland, Slovakia and Austria. The terrain of the Czech Republic is quite diverse. In the north and north-west, the natural border of the Czech Republic is represented by the Ore Mountains, as well as the spurs of the Sudetenland, and from the south-west and south the Šumava mountain range, covered with forest. The Czech Republic is located on the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, which is the watershed between the largest rivers - the Elbe (Laba) and the Danube. In addition to high forested mountain ranges, the Czech Republic has fertile plains and the famous Czech forests, as well as many lakes and rivers. Population -10.5 million people. The national composition is 81.3% Czechs, 13.7% residents of Moravia and Silesia. The remaining 5% are national minorities, of which: Germans (50 thousand people), Gypsies (300 thousand people) and Jews (2 thousand people). Restraint towards foreigners is a distinctive feature of the Czechs. Population density: 130.6 people/sq.km. Urban population: 65.3%. Religious composition: atheists 39.8%, Catholics 39.2%, Protestants 4.6%, Orthodox 3%, supporters of other religions 13.4%. Employment: in industry 33.1%, agricultural sector 6.9%, construction 9.1%, transport and communications 7.2%, services 43.7%. Area - 78864 sq. km. The largest river in the Czech Republic is the Vltava, which is 440 km long. The largest cities in the Czech Republic are Brno (392 thousand), Ostrava (332 thousand), Pilsen (175 thousand), Olomouc (106 thousand), Usti nad Labem (100 thousand), Liberec (100 thousand), Hradec Kralove (98 thousand), Pardubice (94 thousand), Ceske Budejovice (93 thousand). In the Czech Republic there are 8 sites protected by UNESCO as “world cultural and natural heritage”. The capital is Prague (1.3 million people).
The Czech Republic stands out for its developed mechanical engineering. This industry provides about half of all exports; mechanical engineering employs a third of all industrial workers in the country. IN international trade In terms of machinery and equipment, the Czech Republic holds one of the first places. The industrial "face" of the Czech Republic is also determined by the coal industry (especially the mining of coking coal). And ferrous metallurgy; V last years The chemical industry occupies a significant place. In the Czech Republic it produces machine tools (including program-controlled ones), machine tools, motorcycles, cars, locomotives, chemical products, fabrics, refrigerators, etc. Production and development are very well developed medical equipment(including the production of an “artificial heart” used in heart surgery). The textile industry is also well developed.
Research conducted by the UN in 2001 showed that in the Czech Republic there is high level life. The Czech Republic was in 27th place among all countries in the world. In the Czech Republic low prices for food and clothing. Confidence in the future is instilled by a rapidly developing market economy, a clear course for reforms and a powerful flow of Western investment. At the same time, the Czech Republic is distinguished by the lowest unemployment in Europe, high quality free medical care and education, the stability of the national currency and low, compared to other European countries, prices for residential and commercial real estate.
8. How would you rank the countries in the region in terms of:
a) availability of natural resources;
Countries in the region are endowed with natural resources to varying degrees. The most significant primary energy resources are represented by coal reserves (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and gas (Romania), and hydro resources (Bulgaria). The main reserves of ore minerals are concentrated in the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, Romania and Slovakia (iron ores), Hungary (bauxite), Albania (chromites). The shortage of many types of mineral raw materials in a number of countries is to some extent compensated for by the fertile lands of the Danube lowlands.
b) level of socio-economic development;
In relation to all countries of the region, the term “countries with economies in transition” was recently widely used, i.e., those implementing the transition to a developed market economy. While some countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary) have achieved tangible success along this path, others (Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro and especially Albania) seem to be “drifting” towards such an economy. The process of economic reforms in them is moving slowly.
c) directions of specialization of agriculture.
Many countries have different agricultural characteristics. Thus, Romania has no equal in the share of corn sown areas, Poland - in rye and potato crops, Bulgaria - in the importance of gardening, Estonia - in pig breeding.
9. Analyze the state of Russia’s foreign economic relations with the countries of the region. With which of them, in your opinion, is it especially advisable to develop economic ties for our country?
Over the past twenty years, relations between Russia and CEE countries have gone through a rather contradictory path: from the minimization of these relations in the early-mid 90s of the twentieth century to a significant revival that has steadily emerged at the end of the last decade of the twentieth century. beginning of XXI century. In the "Foreign Policy Concept" Russian Federation" stated: “Russia is open to further expansion of pragmatic, mutually respectful cooperation with the states of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, taking into account the real readiness of each of them for this *" . It is most advisable to develop ties with Russia’s largest Eastern European trade and economic partners, the first of which is Poland, and the second is Hungary. However, modern relations are still largely unstable and remain subject to many opportunistic factors. On the one hand, they are determined by internal political and economic circumstances, on the other hand, by the dictates of higher world politics and its main players today. Among the priorities of the foreign economic policy of the countries of Central Europe, membership in the EU comes first, the second is the development of cooperation within this group of countries, and only in third place is the formation of relations with Russia and other CIS countries.
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The composition and nature of the geographical distribution of mineral resources in countries are determined by the peculiarities of geological and tectonic structures. The greatest economic importance are large (on a European scale) deposits: hard coal (Upper Silesian basin in southern Poland and the adjacent Ostrava-Karvinsky basin in the north-east of the Czech Republic), brown coal (Serbia, Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas ( Romania, Albania), oil shale (Estonia), rock salt (Poland, Romania), phosphorites (Estonia), natural sulfur (Poland), lead-zinc ores (Poland, Serbia), bauxite (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary) , chromite and nickel (Albania); In a number of countries there are deposits of uranium ores of industrial importance.
In general, CEE countries are insufficiently provided with primary energy resources. Up to 9/10 of the region's coal reserves (about 70 billion tons) are in Poland alone. CEE contains over 1/3 of the pan-European reserves of brown coal; they are more dispersed across the countries of the region, but still more than half lie in Serbia and Poland. No country (except Albania) has sufficient oil and natural gas reserves. Even Romania, which is better supplied with them, is forced to partially cover its needs for them through imports. Of the total hydro potential of CEE of 182 billion kWh, about half is in the republics of the former Yugoslavia (primarily Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina) and more than 20% in Romania. The region is rich in healing mineral springs, some of which are effectively used (especially in the Czech Republic).
CEE countries vary greatly in the size, composition and quality of forest resources. In the south of the region, the mountainous regions of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the Carpathians, are characterized by increased forest cover with a predominance of conifers and beech, while in the predominantly flat and heavily cultivated Poland and Hungary the forest supply is much less. In Poland and the Czech Republic, a significant part of productive forests is represented by artificial plantations, primarily pine trees.
However, the main wealth of CEE is its soil and climatic resources. There are large areas of naturally fertile soils, mostly of the chernozem type. These are primarily the Lower and Middle Danube plains, as well as the Upper Thracian lowland. Due to the extensiveness of agriculture before the Second World War, about 10 - 15 quintals were collected here. with hectares Cereal crops. IN
In the 80s, the yield had already reached 35 - 45 c. per hectare, but was still lower than the yields in some Western European countries with lands less rich in humus.
Based on soil and climatic conditions and other natural resources, CEE countries can be conditionally divided into two groups: northern (Baltic countries, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia) and southern (rest of the countries). These differences, consisting of higher temperatures during the growing season and more fertile soils in the southern group of countries, create an objective basis for the specialization and complementarity of both groups of countries in agricultural production. While most of the territory of the northern group of countries is located in a zone of sufficient moisture, in the southern group - during the growing season, arid conditions often arise, causing the need for artificial irrigation (In the Lower Danube and Middle Danube lowlands, in the second half of the 20th century, one of the most irrigated areas in Europe arose agriculture). At the same time, the climatic conditions of the southern group of countries, combined with healing mineral springs and wide access to warm seas create important prerequisites for organizing recreation for residents not only of these countries, but also of the northern part of the region, as well as tourists from other, primarily European, countries.
Population.
The population dynamics of CEE are characterized by a number of features characteristic of the European continent as a whole: a decrease in the birth rate, an aging population and, accordingly, an increase in the mortality rate. At the same time, the CEE region, in contrast to Western Europe, is also characterized by a significant population decline due to a negative balance of migration. In the second half of the 90s, the average population density of CEE (104 people per 1 sq. km.) was close to that in Western Europe. Country-by-country differences in population density range from 33 in Estonia to 131. At 1 km. sq. in the Czech Republic. There are more significant differences in population density within countries, due to both natural conditions and socio-economic factors. The process of urbanization had a great influence. For most CEE countries, in contrast to the developed countries of Western Europe, the stage of accelerated industrialization and, accordingly, increased concentration of production in cities occurred at a later time, mainly after the Second World War. Therefore, the rate of urbanization during this period was the highest. By the beginning of the 90s, more than 2/3 of the region’s population was already concentrated in cities (in Czechoslovakia up to 4/5). There are few large cities compared to Western Europe. Capital cities stand out sharply, among which the largest two million people are Budapest and Bucharest, and some urban agglomerations (Upper Silesian).
It is enough to take even a cursory glance at the map of Europe to note the significant features of the natural conditions of Russia. First of all, this is a huge territory. If the total area of Europe is 11.6 million.
sq. km, then the area European Russia equaled 5.6 million square meters. km; and although Russia did not immediately occupy this entire territory, already from the end of the 15th century. she was herself big country Europe.
For the national economy and political history of feudal countries, proximity to the sea was of great importance. Europe as a whole is distinguished by its highly dissected and rugged coastline. Islands and peninsulas account for a third (34%) of the total territory. However, the vast majority of islands and peninsulas are located in Western Europe. Continentality is the most characteristic feature of Eastern Europe, especially in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe, most of whose countries have access to the sea and a significant coastline. If more than half of the entire territory of Europe (51%) is located less than 250 km from metropolitan area 1, then for European Russia the corresponding figure is no more than 15%. In Eastern Europe there are surface points located 1 thousand km from the sea; in Western Europe, the greatest distance to the sea coast is 600 km. The seas to which the borders of feudal Russia extended were not very convenient for connections with the main trade routes. The cold Arctic Ocean creates serious difficulties for navigation. The Black Sea is an inland sea and is far from the busiest sea routes. In addition, a reliable access to
Russia received the Baltic Sea, and even the Black Sea, only in the century.
The main part of Eastern Europe is the largest on the mainland, the East European, or Russian, Plain, which occupies almost half of the entire territory of Europe. This is a huge, slightly hilly or slightly undulating space, the main parts of which do not exceed an altitude of 200 m above sea level; the absolute height of the hills located on it (the largest of them are Central Russian, Valdai, Pri-
Volga) no more than 370 m. Mountains are found here only on the outskirts (Carpathians, Caucasus, Ural). In Western Europe, the relief has a completely different character. Here, mountains, plains, flat hills, and hilly areas often alternate in a small space. In many European countries, islands and bays contribute to the creation of sharp natural contrasts in relatively small areas. This diversity of surface shapes and natural conditions is especially evident in Greece and Italy.
Almost all of Europe lies in a temperate climate zone. In summer, the main part of European Russia is dominated by positive temperatures from 15° (Arkhangelsk) to 20° (Poltava). In Western Europe, summer temperatures are close to them, although in the north (in England, Scandinavia) they are somewhat lower, and in the extreme south they are slightly higher. But winter temperatures differ quite sharply in these areas.
Remoteness from the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf Stream, warm Mediterranean Sea cause a strong cooling of the surface and atmosphere. Therefore, in winter it is much colder here. Here are data on the average January temperatures of some Western European countries
capitals: Athens - -j-9°, Madrid 1-4°, London [-3°, Paris -
+2°, Berlin 1°, Vienna 2°. Bucharest 4°2. In Russia
there were no such temperatures (with the exception of a narrow Black Sea strip); cities such as Lvov, Kyiv, Minsk, Poc-
tov-on-Don lie in the band from -2 4 to -8°; Leningrad,
Moscow, Voronezh, Volgograd - in the range from -8° to -12°; January is even colder in Arkhangelsk, Gorky, Perm, Kuibyshev3* Thus, January in Western Europe is warmer than in Eastern Europe, by an average of 10°. The difference in winter temperatures leads to another important difference. If the coastal countries of Western Europe do not have permanent snow cover at all (it forms at a temperature no higher than -3°), then in European Russia snow lies for a long time - from three to four (Kyiv, Volgograd) to six to seven months (Leningrad, Arkhangelsk , Sverdlovsk). Only in the eastern part of Central Europe does snow persist for one to two months. Spring and autumn in Western European countries are warm and more extended in time, which is also important for agriculture.
The bulk of precipitation in Eastern Europe falls in the summer. They are distributed fairly evenly over the surface of the Russian Plain. Most of it has 500-600 mm of precipitation per year. In the extreme south and southeast, the soil receives only 300-400 mm, and in the Caspian lowland even less than 200 mm. In Western Europe, precipitation falls significantly more - on average from 500 to 1 thousand mm per year; They are distributed throughout its territory more diversely. At a great distance from the ocean in the warm season in the south-eastern part of Eastern Europe, it is often possible to install
There are long periods of rainlessness and drought. In some cases, they also cover the middle part of Eastern Europe and, less frequently, Central Europe.
There are a lot of large rivers in Eastern Europe. Here is the greatest river in Europe, the Volga, whose length is 3,690 km, and the basin makes up 12% of the entire area of the continent, and eight more large rivers, each with a length of more than 1 thousand km. There are only five such rivers in Western Europe. No other country in Europe has such powerful and extensive river systems covering vast areas. Most of the large rivers of Eastern Europe flow south - into the Black and Caspian Seas. Hydrologists characterize Eastern European rivers as rivers of the “Russian” type. They have a mixed feeding pattern (rain and snow), but with a predominance of snow. In the spring, as a result of melting snow, the water flow in them increases sharply, and floods occur. At the end of summer, the rivers become shallow (especially at the end of August - September), and this level remains the same throughout the winter. According to data from the 19th century, in the Moscow River in spring, water flow was more than 100 times higher than during low water; The flood on the Volga reached such proportions that in Astrakhan it lasted about two months4. Since most Russian rivers flow along the plain, they usually have a calm flow and a large number of meanders. The rivers of European Russia, as a rule, are covered with ice for a long time (from two to seven months a year).
The rivers of Western Europe are characterized by a significantly lower, sometimes close to zero, proportion of snow supply. Therefore, they also lack spring floods. The rivers of Western Europe (with the exception of the rivers of the Far North) do not freeze in normal years. Many rivers in Western Europe, especially those starting in the mountains, have a fairly fast flow; Some rivers are calm in nature.
In terms of soil cover, the territory of European Russia can be divided into two parts. The border between them runs approximately along the line Kazan - Gorky - Kaluga - Kyiv - Lutsk. The northern of these parts is characterized by soils with reduced biological productivity. The northernmost regions of Eastern Europe (roughly speaking, north of the 60th parallel) have very poor soils - tundra, swamp, podzolic. To the south there are areas occupied by soddy-podzolic soils, which have more nutrient reserves. Those of them that have a clay or loamy composition can produce good yields. However, in this area there are more sandy and sandy loam soils in mechanical composition than clayey and loamy soils. Finally, significant areas in this part are occupied by swamps.
South part has much more fertile soils - gray forest and chernozems various types. This is the territory of the modern Black Earth Center* of Moldova, Ukraine, which
They serve as the breadbasket of the country. The best varieties Chernozems here are distinguished by high fertility. There is also little sand here. True, the southeast of this region (the Caspian lowland and the adjacent strip of steppes) has a lot of sandy and saline soils and often suffers from a lack of moisture.
Western Europe can also be divided into two parts, differing in the nature of their soils. Infertile soils occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula, the islands of Great Britain (with the exception of their southern parts) and Ireland; on the mainland, the border between poor and rich soils can be extended from Lutsk through Lublin, Wroclaw, Magdeburg and Rotterdam. Sometimes areas of soils more favorable for agriculture go beyond this line (in the north of Germany, the GDR and Poland, in the east of Denmark); but to the south of this border, soddy-podzolic soils lie in separate massifs in France, Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia. South and west of this line, the soils are, as a rule, fertile - gray or brown forest soils, chernozems, brown soils, red soils, yellow soils, etc. (Ho in this part there are no such rich chernozems as in Eastern Europe, and a significant part of the territory is occupied by soils of mountainous regions, which have a thinner nutrient layer.) The ratio between the fertile and infertile parts in foreign Europe is exactly the opposite of the same ratio in European Russia: if in In the first case, fertile areas occupy slightly more than half of the territory; in the second case, they account for a smaller part of the area.
h Russia's mineral resources were very large. Here there was much of what was necessary for the development of industry of the feudal period. The main raw materials for primitive metallurgy were swamp, lake and turf ores. They were distributed throughout almost the entire territory of Europe, and Rus' in this regard was, therefore, in completely equal conditions. There were huge deposits of high-quality maschetite ore in the Urals; Western Europe also had rich reserves of iron ore (in England, Germany, Sweden). Russia had large deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, but they were located in the eastern regions (in the Urals, Altai, Transbaikalia). In Western European countries, copper was mined in Germany, Spain, Hungary, and Serbia; tin - in England, Saxony, Czech Republic, Serbia; lead - in Hungary. Reserves of precious metals were also developed in Western European countries: Germany had a lot of silver; gold and silver were mined in smaller quantities in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Serbia5. Russia was also not poor in these metals, and the reserves of gold and platinum were much richer than the ores of European countries, but they were again concentrated mainly in the Urals and Siberia. Russia had vast tracts of forest of excellent quality, and in this respect was superior to others European countries. The country was well provided for
hydraulic energy and raw materials for the primitive chemical industry, and its natural resources here were not inferior to those of Russia's western neighbors.
These are the main features of the natural conditions of European Russia in comparison with foreign European countries.
Countries in the region: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Federation of Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Albania. The countries of Eastern Europe represent a single natural territorial massif stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The region and its adjacent countries are based on an ancient Precambrian platform, covered by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as an area of alpine folding. An important feature of all countries in the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS. Countries C.V. Europe differs from each other in geographical location, configuration, size of territory, and wealth of natural resources. Natural resource reserves include: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas (Romania), iron ores (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania). In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a striking example of the “incompleteness” of a set of minerals. Thus, Poland has large reserves of coal, copper ores, and sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, or iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals. The region is rich in healing mineral springs, some of which are effectively used (especially in the Czech Republic). CEE countries vary greatly in the size, composition and quality of forest resources. In the south of the region, the mountainous regions of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the Carpathians, are characterized by increased forest cover with a predominance of conifers and beech, while in the predominantly flat and heavily cultivated Poland and Hungary the forest supply is much less. There are large areas of naturally fertile soils, mostly of the chernozem type. These are primarily the Lower and Middle Danube Plains, as well as the Upper Thracian Lowland. The population of the region is about 130 million people. The population dynamics of CEE are characterized by a number of features characteristic of the European continent as a whole: a decrease in the birth rate, an aging population and, accordingly, an increase in the mortality rate. Energy: due to a shortage of oil reserves, this region is focused on coal, most of the electricity is generated by thermal power plants (more than 60%), but hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants also play an important role. One of the largest nuclear power plants was built in the region - Kozloduy in Bulgaria. Metallurgy: Non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on its own raw materials, while ferrous metallurgy relies on imported ones. Mechanical engineering: represented in all countries, but most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool manufacturing, production of household appliances and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia. The chemical industry of the region lags far behind that of Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But we can still note the pharmaceuticals of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic. C\X: the economic structure of the region is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Baltic countries, the share of livestock farming exceeds the share of crop farming; in the rest, the ratio is still the opposite. Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several crop growing zones can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland , Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role; in the central part of the subregion, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated, and the “southern” countries specialize in subtropical crops. The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, and fruits. The main ones wheat-corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria). Hungary achieved the greatest success in grain growing. Northern and central countries regions specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, and the southern ones - in mountain pasture meat and wool animal husbandry. Transport: now railway transport is the leader in terms of transportation volume, BUT road and sea transport are also intensively developing. The presence of major ports contributes to the development of foreign economic relations, shipbuilding, ship repair, and fishing. Countries C.V. Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGP, resources, level of development. Northern group: Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. These countries are still characterized by a low degree of integration, but there are common tasks in the development of the maritime economy. Central group: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary. The economy of the first two countries is of a clearly industrial nature. The Czech Republic ranks first in the region in terms of industrial output per capita. Southern group: Romania, Bulgaria, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Albania. In the past, these were the most backward countries, and now, despite major changes in their economy, the countries of this group lag behind the countries of the 1st and 2nd groups in most indicators.
Question 4.Countries of Central Europe. E.-G.characteristics. Common features and regional differences.
Countries in the region: Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Ireland, Litechtenstein, Luxembourg. The EGP of the subregion is very favorable. This is due to the fact that, firstly, the countries of the subregion either access the sea or are located at a short distance from it (no further than 480 km), which contributes to the development of economic ties. Secondly, the neighboring position of these countries in relation to each other is very important. Thirdly, the natural conditions of the region are generally favorable for the development of both industry and agriculture. In the northern part, both ore minerals (associated with the Baltic shield and areas of the Hercynian fold) and fuel minerals (concentrated in marginal troughs, sedimentary cover and epicontinental zones) are common. In the southern part, ore deposits predominate, and fuel reserves are smaller. Despite the fact that mineral resources are quite diverse, many of them are close to depletion. Thus, the coal basins of England and Germany, which served as the basis for the development of heavy industry, and the iron ore basins of France and Sweden now play a lesser role. Of great importance are the reserves of brown coal in Germany, bauxite in Greece and France, zinc-lead ores in Germany, Ireland, Italy, potassium salts in Germany and France, uranium in France, oil and gas at the bottom of the North Sea. Only the Netherlands has its own natural gas deposits. Austria and Switzerland have significant hydropower resources. Sufficient reserves of iron ore are found only in Austria, and reserves of non-ferrous metals are insignificant in all countries and are completely absent in the Netherlands.
In terms of national composition, the population of all countries, except Belgium and Switzerland, is single-national. Natural growth is very low; countries are characterized by the import of cheap labor. The level of urbanization is very high. Officially, 62% and 58% of the population live in cities in Switzerland and Austria, respectively, but even in rural areas an urban lifestyle reigns.
The cities of the small countries of Central Europe are ancient and are historical and architectural monuments. Among European countries, the Netherlands and Belgium are more densely populated, with an average density of 371 people per 1 km and 338 people per 1 km2, respectively. All countries are classified as highly developed, only Ireland is a moderately developed state. A successful choice of specialization, wide participation in the international division of labor, accumulated experience in industrial development and its constant enrichment, as well as the rapid development of scientific, technical and technological achievements provide them with a fairly strong position in the economy of Western Europe. Only Ireland is characterized by a noticeably lower level of economic development. The fuel and energy complex of the small countries of Central Europe (with the exception of the Netherlands) focuses on imported energy resources. In Austria and Switzerland, electricity production is dominated by hydroelectric power plants. Belgium, the Netherlands and Switzerland have nuclear power plants. Metallurgical complex Central European countries are experiencing a crisis due to a lack of their own raw materials and fuel. Ferrous metallurgy uses 2/3 ores from Africa, Australia and America. Belgium and Luxembourg are among the largest steel exporting countries in Western Europe. A highly developed iron and steel industry is also in the Netherlands. In non-ferrous metallurgy, the aluminum industry based on imported bauxite (Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium) is most developed. In addition, copper, cobalt, and lead are smelted. Belgium is one of the largest exporters of non-ferrous metals in Western Europe. Mechanical engineering in Central Europe is a leading industry. Electrical engineering is a complex diversified complex engaged in the production of electronic, radio and telephone equipment, and power equipment. It was most developed in the Netherlands (TVs, radios, computers, electronic medical and telecommunications equipment). This industry is also highly developed in other countries. Heavy engineering is developed in Austria and Switzerland. Switzerland occupies one of the first places in Europe in watch production, 95% of which is exported. Shipbuilding is developed in the Netherlands. The petrochemical industry of Central European countries is developed in the Netherlands and Belgium. Switzerland specializes in the production of pharmaceutical products. Food industry highest development reached in the Netherlands (1/4 of world exports of butter, cheese, 2/3 of condensed milk) and Switzerland (cheese, chocolate, food concentrates). Agriculture in Central Europe is also a developed industry with high productivity. The industry structure is dominated by livestock farming for meat and dairy purposes; only in Belgium and Austria does it have a dairy and meat direction. Ireland ranks among the first in Europe and the world in the export of live cattle and meat. The most important agricultural crops are fodder (wheat, oats). Larger areas are occupied by them than by food crops. Sugar beets, corn, and potatoes are also grown. In Austria, Switzerland and Luxembourg they are engaged in viticulture, in the Netherlands - floriculture. Fishing in the countries of Central Europe is most developed in Ireland. Transport plays an important role in the development of the economy of the small countries of Central Europe. In Belgium, the Netherlands and Ireland, the leading role in external relations is played by maritime (ports of Rotterdam, Antwerp) and aviation. River transport is used for internal and external transport of goods in Belgium, the Netherlands and Austria. The most important waterways are the Rhine and Danube. In Switzerland and Austria, road and rail transport are of greatest importance. Road transport is developed in all countries. Among the export items, the predominant products are mechanical engineering, metallurgy, chemical and Food Industry. Imports include raw materials, energy resources and semi-finished products. The countries maintain very close economic ties among themselves, as well as with Germany and the UK. Switzerland and Luxembourg provide financial services. Tourism is one of the leading sources of income for all countries. Austria and Switzerland have the highest tourism income per capita in the world. Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Ireland are members of the EU, and the Benelux countries (the common name for Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) are members of NATO.
