Ancient history roads and transport according to archeology

L.I. Avilova

Communication routes have existed as long as humanity has existed. The most ancient transport arteries were rivers developed by man during the Mesolithic era. Later, in the Neolithic (VIII-V millennium BC) there were land routes along which valuable types of raw materials (flint, obsidian, lapis lazuli, malachite, sea shells, ivory) were exchanged between tribes at distances of sometimes many hundreds of kilometers ). These were paths tied to natural terrain - river valleys, mountain passes; There are no material traces left of them, but these ancient paths are reconstructed based on archaeological finds from the settlements located along them. The oldest land means of transport were pack animals - onager donkeys, domesticated in Western Asia by the 4th millennium BC. On the snowy plains of Eastern Europe around the same time, Neolithic tribes invented lightweight wooden sleds with dog sleds. Details of such sleds were preserved in the peat bogs of the Urals and Baltic states. The sled consisted of flat runners curved upward in front; a series of vertical risers were inserted into them, on which a platform for the load was attached. There were several varieties of sleds, in particular, with one toboggan-type runner (Fig. 1).

The revolution in the development of land transport is associated with the invention of the wheel. According to archaeological data, at first, in the 6th millennium BC. appeared in Mesopotamia Potter's wheel, and reliable evidence of the existence of a wheeled cart dates back to the 4th millennium BC. Onagers and bulls served as draft animals. Images of the most ancient carts on painted vessels have been preserved (Fig. 2).

In front of us is a heavy carriage with four solid massive wheels made of boards. The body is rectangular with high sides and can easily accommodate two people and additional cargo. The team consists of four onagers placed in a line; a special driver had to drive with the help of numerous reins. On the flat plains of Mesopotamia in the dry season, such a cart could move quite quickly, despite its clumsiness and heaviness. Carts were used mainly for military purposes, making it possible to develop a hitherto unknown speed of movement. They were of great value and a sign of the high social rank of the owner. The remains of such carts, along with the skeletons of draft oxen and drivers, were found in the burials of the richest royal burials in Central Anatolia (Aladzha Heyuk burial ground, mid-3rd millennium BC). The Metropolitan Museum of Art (USA) houses a bronze model of a war chariot from Eastern Anatolia, dating back to the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. (Fig. 3) .

This is a four-wheeled cart for military purposes, pulled by a pair of oxen. The wheels are solid, made of boards, the body is made of beams, the front wall is much higher and more massive than the others. The drawbar has a forked rear end; a yoke is attached to the front end, secured to the horns of the bulls. They are controlled by reins using rings threaded through the animal's nose. From the ancient center of civilization, which was Western Asia, cultural achievements spread to Europe in two streams - through the Balkans and the Caucasus to the steppe Black Sea region. At the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennia BC, during the Early Bronze Age, four-wheeled carts also already existed here. The roads of this time are unknown, however, we can judge where the routes for the spread of cultural achievements lay. There is an ancient “map” on which the route from the south, from Eastern Anatolia or Northern Mesopotamia, to the North Caucasus is quite recognizable. This is a chased image on a silver vessel from a mound near the city of Maikop, where in late XIX

In the steppe Black Sea region in the early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC), carts became widespread. Modern methods of excavating burial mounds have made it possible to record numerous cases of carts being placed in burial chambers. Such finds are known in the steppes of Eastern Europe: in the Kuban region (mounds near the villages of Lebedi, the Ostanniy farm, etc.), in Kalmykia, on the Lower Don (Fig. 5).

The axles of the carts were stationary. The wheels were still made of three thick boards, with a protruding massive hub in the center. The design of the body was much more complex than that of the first Middle Eastern carts: the basis was a frame made of massive longitudinal beams and lighter transverse ones. Flooring boards were attached to the frame using numerous vertical risers, sometimes in several tiers, thereby achieving lightness and at the same time strength of the structure. In front of the platform there was a special place for the driver with railings along the edges; the back of the cart was intended for cargo. The drawbar was made from a forked tree trunk; its fork was attached to the sides of the body, which made the cart difficult to maneuver when turning. A yoke for a pair of oxen was attached to the front end. The body and wheels of the cart sometimes retain traces of painting with red and black paints. The body dimensions are on average 1.2 by 2.6 m, the wheel diameter is approx. 70 cm, track width - about 1.5 m.

The tribes who left these mounds were cattle breeders and led an active lifestyle, making seasonal migrations along with their herds. They did not have settlements with permanent houses. The carts were most likely equipped with tent-type structures consisting of light wooden frame covered with felt. A remarkable find from the Chograi mound in the Stavropol region, depicting such a dwelling, dates back to a slightly later time (2nd millennium BC)

(Fig.6) . This is a clay model (possibly a toy) and has no wheels, but details show a tall body with a domed top and three rounded windows in front and on the sides. There are small holes in the lower part of the walls, which were used to attach the wagon to the cart platform using belts or ropes. Before us is a typical dwelling of a steppe nomad. The walls of the tent are decorated with zigzag and linear patterns, which convey patterned felt or felt.

The construction of roads begins with the emergence of the state. The oldest road discovered in Egypt has reached us; it was laid to the site of the construction of the pyramid of Pharaoh Sahura (3rd millennium BC) (Fig. 7).

The road surface is approx. wide. 4 m was built from stone blocks laid transversely. Its middle part is badly worn out: multi-ton stone blocks were transported along it on massive drag sleighs drawn by oxen. These scenes are depicted in detail on the paintings inside the pyramids. In particular, it is shown how the road is watered to reduce friction on the runners.

In the 2nd millennium BC. The horse was domesticated, which then became the main draft animal. At this time, two-wheeled war chariots appeared, with which the spread of peoples belonging to the Indo-European language family is associated. A remarkable find was the discovery of the Sintashta burial ground in the southern Urals. Here, in the burial chambers under the mounds, war chariots of complex design were discovered (Fig. 8)

They had two wheels with 8-10 wooden spokes and a square plank body with an average size of 1.2 by 0.9 m, open at the back. The drawbar was curved, and a yoke was attached to it, designed for two horses (their skeletons were also found in burials). The axle was connected to the drawbar in an original way– using holder bars placed outside on the sides of the body. Their small size (track width 1.2 m), lightness and mobility made these chariots an excellent military transport, which allowed the Aryan tribes to quickly cover vast distances in the Eurasian steppes and forest-steppes. As in the Middle East, they served as a sign of the high social status of the warriors buried in the mounds.

Winter routes beyond the Urals were very difficult. A unique means of transportation was used here - a combination of horse traction and skis. On the hilt of a cast bronze dagger from the Rostovka burial ground (16th century BC) there is a depiction of a stocky horse, similar to Przewalski’s horse, to the bridle of which long and strong reins are attached, and a skier is holding on to them. The man's legs are slightly bent at the knees and apart, he is depicted in a pose of rapid movement, following the horse (Fig. 9).

The Iron Age (1st millennium BC) was marked by widespread various types wheeled transport. Scythian tribes who lived in the 7th-2nd centuries. BC. V

Northern Black Sea region, the majority were active cattle breeders and dexterous warriors and horsemen. “The Father of History” Herodotus writes that their homes were built on carts. Clay models (toys) of Scythian carts of various shapes have reached us (Fig. 10a-c). Four-wheeled carts with a dome-shaped living part - a wagon, made of felt, mounted on a light wooden frame - were used as mobile housing. There were also cargo carts without a canopy, but with a deep, voluminous body. The wheels of all models are solid, but most likely this is a feature of the material - it is impossible to fashion a wheel with spokes from clay.

An amazing discovery was made in Altai, in the Pazyryk mound. Here in the V-IV centuries. BC. lived tribes related to the Scythians, who maintained active ties with Central Asia and even with China.

In the burial of the leader, in the permafrost formed under the mound, a four-wheeled ceremonial chariot of the Chinese type, with a light body and a canopy supported on turned posts, was completely preserved. Large wheels have 33 thin spokes, the axles protrude greatly beyond the plane of the wheel (Fig. 11).

The chariot is kept in the Hermitage.

A beautiful golden figurine from the Amu-Darya treasure (Central Asia, the territory of ancient Bactria) dates back to the same time, depicting in the smallest detail a war chariot-quadriga drawn by four horses. The driver holds the reins, the noble Bactrian sits. The wheels are large, 8-spoke, with metal-wrapped wheel rims (protruding nails shown). There are two drawbars and one common yoke in the form of a beam; all the details of the horse harness are reflected in detail: bridle, bit with cheekpieces, belts, reins.

The ancient states of antiquity paid attention to the construction of roads and their safety. The responsibility of each of the numerous states ancient Greece there was construction of roads. Roads of standard width (approx. 3 m) were laid on rocky soil, carving out entire sections in the rocks. Roads were considered as sacrosanct as temples. Herodotus’s “History” describes the royal road laid by the Persian rulers in the 6th century. BC. from the city of Sardis in western Asia Minor to Susa in southwestern Iran. Its length was approx. 2400 km. Stations with inns were built at regular intervals, and military posts and fortified gates were located at strategic points, such as river crossings.

In the Northern Black Sea region, on the territory of modern Russia and Ukraine, there were numerous ancient Greek cities. Their inhabitants mastered the technology of road construction, as can be judged by the paved city streets discovered by archaeologists (the cities of Panticapaeum - modern Kerch, Gorgippia - Anapa, Phanagoria and Hermonassa on the Taman Peninsula, etc.) (Fig. 12).

The streets were paved with stone slabs laid dry without mortar, the alleys with rubble and shards of broken vessels. Stone-lined drains and water pipes ran along the streets, and wells, also lined with stone slabs, were installed at intersections. Carts with solid wheels made of massive boards and an oxen team served as freight transport; nobles and warriors moved in light two-wheeled chariots drawn by a pair (biga) or four (quadriga) horses. There are numerous images of Greek carts and chariots: on the wall of the crypt of Demeter in Kerch, on painted vessels with scenes of military scenes and sports competitions (II-I centuries BC). Ancient Greek artists especially loved to depict the heroes of Homer and scenes of the Trojan War (Fig. 13).

Light war chariots had a curved drawbar and two wheels with 6-8 spokes. The wheels were small, which made the entire structure more stable when turning. The horses were harnessed to a soft leather yoke. The body, open at the back, had handrails that the warrior could hold on to while moving quickly. The body was made of wicker twigs, heavier bodies were made of boards, both of which were strengthened and decorated with bronze plates. Typically, a war chariot was designed for two people - a warrior and a driver. Driving a war wagon was considered a high art, the program Olympic Games included chariot races.

The highest achievement in the field of transport systems of antiquity was the Roman roads. The Roman state paid great attention to the construction of roads, which played an important military and civil role in the functioning of the vast empire. The most ancient Appian Way was built in the 4th century. BC, on the map ancient Rome You can see how numerous roads diverging from the city center in a star shape, connecting it with the most remote provinces. The Romans became the inventors of concrete and widely used it in road construction. Concrete was made from crushed soft rock shale. Evenly hewn stone slabs, fastened with mortar, were laid on a thick, often multi-layered bedding of stones and rubble. The slabs could be rectangular or irregular in shape (Fig. 14).

The width of the roads was standard; in the central provinces of the empire it was approx. 5 m, which allowed two carts to pass each other. Ditches were laid along the roadbed, and the distance was marked with stones placed every 1 mile. During this period, there were many types of carriages - cargo carts with an ox team, military and sports chariots, carts various sizes and canopied or enclosed types designed for long-distance travel. There were special terms to refer to each type of crew.

Collapse of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. AD under the blows of barbarian tribes and the onset of the Middle Ages meant the loss of many achievements of civilization, including the destruction of the road network. In the medieval Old Russian state, the most important routes of communication were rivers, along which navigation was carried out from spring to autumn, and in winter a sleigh path was laid. It was along the rivers that the most important trade routes passed: along the Dnieper and Volkhov - “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” i.e. from Scandinavia to the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. When moving from one river basin to another, it was necessary to overcome land sections - portages (the name comes from the fact that the boats had to be dragged dry, on padded rollers). Cities arose in the places of portages - Smolensk, Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochok, and smaller trade and craft settlements. Nearby there were also burial mounds (such as the huge Gnezdovsky burial ground near Smolensk) with numerous burials of warriors-combatants and traders. Character traits burial rituals and finds allow us to identify a significant population group of Scandinavian origin. Trade routes are marked by the discovery of numerous treasures of silver coins and precious items. The main goods during the Kievan Rus period were furs, honey, wax, slaves, fabrics, products made of precious metals, and wine.

The princely administration took care of the condition of land roads; one of its tasks was to build gates in swampy areas. The most ancient Laurentian Chronicle cites the command of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir the Saint (10th century): “Trave the way and pave the bridge” (clear the road and pave the flooring), and “The Tale of Igor’s Host” (12th century) paints a picture of the victorious march of the Russian army, throwing precious fabrics won in battle at the horses’ feet in the form of a road.

The main types of land transport in ancient Rus' were sleighs and wheeled carts. Their choice was determined not so much by the level of technological development and the capabilities of engineering solutions, but by the state of communication routes. In Northern Rus', the most common type of horse-drawn carriage was the sleigh. They were practically driven on difficult, often swampy roads. all year round. Princess Olga's sleigh is mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years under 947; it is interesting that they were kept in medieval Pskov as a relic. Wheeled carts were more widely used in the southern Russian lands. The strategic opponents of the Russian princes - the Pechenegs and Polovtsy - roamed the steppe in “vezhas” - carts with felt carts installed on them, similar to the Scythian ones.

In general, there were few roads in ancient Rus'; they were unpaved and poorly equipped. The situation was better on city streets. In wooded lands they were paved with wood. The princely and city administration monitored the condition of the pavements: special documents have reached us regulating the procedure for their construction and repair, including logging and its delivery. These responsibilities were distributed among the urban population and residents of suburban villages, who were responsible for paving and repairing the areas assigned to them. This is the “Lesson of the Bridge Workers” as part of the oldest Russian collection of laws - “Russian Truth” (1072) and the “Charter of Prince Yaroslav about the bridges” (bridges), recorded in 1265-1266.

The pavements themselves have been well studied by archaeologists; they were discovered in many cities of the forest zone - Smolensk, Tver, Pskov, Berestye, Moscow, Toropets, and, of course, in Novgorod the Great. Key Feature of this city - high humidity soil, thanks to which wood and other organic materials are preserved in the cultural layer. It was in Novgorod that the buildings that were successively updated from the 10th to the 15th centuries were archaeologically studied. street floorings. In the oldest part of the city there are up to 30 tiers. The preservation of Novgorod wood served as the basis for the development of a dendrochronological method for dating archaeological objects. The method is based on counting the growth rings on sections of logs: the alternation of narrow and wide rings reflects the unfavorable and favorable growth conditions of the tree in each particular year. Thus, it became possible to establish the dates of structures and associated finds with an accuracy of one year.

The first, oldest pavement of Chernitsyna Street in Novgorod was built in 938, Velikaya Street - in 953 (Fig. 15).

The construction of pavements was traditional and repeated for centuries until the 18th century. Three longitudinal round logs (logs) were laid at the base of the pavement along the axis of the street at a distance of 1.3 - 1.6 m from one another. Massive transverse blocks were laid on them - logs with a diameter of 25 - 40 cm, split lengthwise. They were placed flat side up, fitting tightly together. Semicircular grooves corresponding to the joists were cut out from below in the blocks, thereby achieving the strength of the flooring. The width of the pavement was 3-4 m. Pine and spruce were used for construction. Dirt and manure were cleared from the pavements, but over time they sank into the cultural layer formed on the sides, and they had to be renewed. Street decks suffered greatly from frequent fires. Typically, the pavement functioned for 15–30 years. Bridges and squares. Under 1308, the 1st Pskov Chronicle mentions that the mayor Boris paved the Pskov “Torgovishche” (trading area), and “became good to all people.”

Large streets and market squares of Northern Russian cities were supplied engineering structures. Drainage systems were laid along them in moist soil to drain groundwater. They consisted of water collectors in the form of barrels dug into the ground and small log cabins-wells, covered with birch bark and logs, and cut into them wooden pipes, some of which served to collect water into a storage tank, and others, of a larger diameter, to discharge it into a river or stream.

The pipes were constructed from longitudinally split and hollowed out logs with a diameter of 40–60 cm, the internal diameter of the pipe reached 20 cm. The longitudinal sections of the logs were not horizontal, but stepped, which prevented the two halves of the pipe from sliding relative to each other. The seams of the structures were sealed with birch bark gaskets (Fig. 16, a-c).

The richest collection of sleigh parts (runners, hoofs, beds, shafts, etc.) comes from Novgorod. The runners were made from bent oak beams of various sections, their length reached 330 cm. The width of the sleigh was approx. 70 cm. A series of hooves were inserted into the grooves of the runner - risers with a horizontal extension, tying adjacent hooves with rods for strength. The outer side of the hoofs was often decorated with carvings. The upper ends of the hoofs were inserted into the grooves of horizontal beams - beds. The beds formed the horizontal platform of the sleigh. They could have an open body in the form of a box and a closed cart body. A shaft was put on the first hoof, the front end of which was connected to an arc and a clamp (both of them are also among the Novgorod finds). The design of medieval sleighs differs from modern peasant sledges in that the width of the ancient body corresponds to the distance between the runners (the travel of the sleigh); modern ones have a wider body. There were different types of sleds, according to their size and design they are divided into cargo sleds, light passenger sleds with a body and running sleds, large-sized carriage sleds, hand sleds and children's sleds (Fig. 17).

A rigid clamp on a wooden base was invented in the East; it appeared in Rus' in the 10th century. - earlier than in Western Europe. The collar allows you to use the horse's strength more fully, distributes the load more evenly than a yoke, and does not injure the animal. It consists of two halves - pliers, covered with leather; tugs are passed into the holes of the clamp, connecting it with the arc and shafts.

In addition to sleighs, drags were used to transport goods (in particular, logs). They were also found in Novgorod. The shafts of the drags were made of wood with a butt; in the rear butt part, used as a runner, they are curved upward. A transverse beam was put on these shafts using grooves, to which a load was attached (Fig. 18).

Carts are less well known from archaeological materials. Only a few wheels were found in Novgorod and Berestye; they date back to the 11th-12th centuries. The diameter of the Novgorod wheel is large, about 85 cm, the rim is made of solid bent oak timber, there are nine spokes, they are also oak. Sockets for the spokes were hollowed out in the rim and hub, in which they were additionally reinforced with wedges. The hub is a massive chiseled lathe blank with a central hole for an axle with a diameter of 6 cm and sockets for spokes. The design of the wheel is technically perfect and does not differ from the best examples of cart wheels of the 19th century. (Fig. 19) .

Based on the perfectly preserved four-wheeled cart from the burial of a noble woman in Oseberg (Norway, 9th century) (Fig. 20), one can judge the land transport of the Vikings - warriors, traders, princely warriors, well known in Rus'.

The Tale of Bygone Years tells of the calling by the local (mainly Slavic) population in 862 of the Varangian princes Rurik with his brothers Sineus and Truvor to reign in Novgorod, Izborsk and Beloozero. The Varangians could use this type of ceremonial cart. Wide composite rims are made from oak planks. The spokes (16 per wheel) are inserted into the grooves of the rim and the massive turned hub. The plank body has a semicircular bottom and is covered on the outside with rich carved ornaments in the form of complex weaving. The body is removable, it is mounted on durable semicircular stands, their ends are also carved and have the shape of a bearded human face.

The Great Volga Route connected medieval Rus', Scandinavia and Northern Europe with the Caspian region and the countries of the East. Its heyday falls on the period of the XII-XIV centuries, when on the banks of the Volga there was a state of the Volga Bulgars, which was subsequently captured by the Mongol-Tatars, who founded their own state here - Golden Horde. At the intersection of the river route with the land route, the largest cities were founded: Saray (in the Volga delta) and New Saray (200 km upstream on the Akhtube branch of the Volga). Land routes led one to the west - to the Crimea, then to the Mediterranean, in particular to Constantinople, the other - to the east to Khorezm and further to India and China, as well as to the south - to Persia and the Arab countries. Along the Volga route to Eastern Europe there was a flow of oriental silver, and to the Mediterranean and to the East - valuable furs from the forests of Rus', the Kama basin and the Northern Urals, Russian linen, slaves, honey and wax. Silks were delivered from Central Asia and China, spices and precious stones, pearls, ivory, silk and cotton fabrics from Persia and India. Byzantium supplied wine and olive oil in potted vessels and glass products to the markets of the Volga cities.

A necessary condition for maintaining vibrant trade was ensuring the smooth functioning of trade routes. In the Golden Horde, the safety of merchant caravans on the roads was ensured by special military detachments. A network of caravanserais was organized, which provided safe parking areas where merchants replenished their supplies of water and provisions. Travelers and traders of the XIV-XV centuries. described the roads of the Golden Horde with admiration: “Caravans usually depart from Khorezm and move with their carts to the Crimea safely, without fear or anxiety, and this journey is about three months long” (Ibn Arabshah). “The road to China is completely safe both day and night” (Pegalotti). The position of the Golden Horde cities at the intersection of the Great Volga Route with overland caravan roads strengthened the status of the state and the khan's administration through taxes and forced them to maintain communication routes in good condition. The whole system fell into decay by the 16th century. along with the decline of the Golden Horde state.

The same routes were used by messengers and embassies; official mail was delivered along them. For them there was a system of stations - pits - with replaceable horses and supplies of food and water. The term "yam" has taken root in the Russian language to refer to a horse-drawn postal service. Yamskaya conscription has been known in Rus' since the 13th century. A characteristic phenomenon of Russian life has its roots in this distant era - the “troika bird” with a bell and a dashing driver on a box.

L.I.Avilova, 2004

Website materials used: http://www.bushcraftru.com

Publications in the Literature section

Encyclopedia of car-free life in Russian literature

Before the invention of automobiles and widespread rail travel, long (and not so long) distance travel in Russia was most often done in horse-drawn carriages. The encyclopedia of Russian non-motorized transport in literature was compiled by Sofya Bagdasarova.

Vladimir Sollogub wrote in his story “Seryozha”: “Here is a cart rushing - the exuberant youth of Russian roads; here the chaise waddles, like a Saratov landowner after dinner; here a wide carriage proudly stands out, like some rich tax farmer; here is the dormez, here is the carriage, and behind them a fat merchant-stagecoach, having drunk fourteen cups of tea in the post yard.”. In Russia, in fact, there were many types of horse-drawn carriages, which, moreover, different regions made in their own way. They also differed in purpose, design and status of the owner.

B - Brichka

This word is of Polish origin and denotes a light four-wheeled road vehicle, sometimes without springs. The body of the chaise could be either open or closed: leather, wicker or wood.

It was in the britzka that he traveled main character“Dead Souls” by Nikolai Gogol - Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov. His chaise was “quite beautiful, with springs,” and even with amenities: the top of the body was “closed against the rain with leather curtains with two round windows, designated for viewing road views.” It was a quite decent road carriage for such an official as Chichikov, befitting his rank, even if, as they would say today, “not a representative class.”

Perhaps this is why many Russian classics described the britzka as an extremely noisy transport. Leo Tolstoy's chaise bounced, Sholokhov's chaise rattled or rattled, and Alexander Serafimovich wrote that “an intolerably sultry ringing rattle rolled behind it.” David Burliuk, dedicating poems to a certain bird with an unbearable voice, compared it to an old broken chaise.

B - Cart

Sergey Ivanov. Boyar slaves. 1909. Collection of Rostropovich and Vishnevskaya

The term was used for a winter type of transport - a covered wagon on runners. The cart is praised for its warmth, it is comfortable, you can ride lying down - “lounging in the cart under fur blankets” (Amphitheaters). It is “filled with feather beds, pillows, etc.” (Victor Shompulev). The windows could be lined with bear fur to prevent drafts, and the inside could be lined with red cloth or even velvet.

Fyodor Koni had a vaudeville show “The Carriage, or They Meet You by Your Dress, You See You Off by Your Mind” about the importance of transport for prestige.

K - Kibitka

Nikolay Sverchkov. Caught in the storm. timing belt

In Russia, a word borrowed from nomads was used to call a covered wagon. Often the top was on arches and could be folded back - reminiscent of a “grandmother’s cap” (Nikolai Teleshov). A good wagon means “with a spacious top and a double matting canopy” (Ivan Lazhechnikov) or “with a leather top and a tightly buttoned apron” (Pavel Melnikov-Pechersky).

It was in the shaking wagon that Radishchev rode: “Lying in the wagon, my thoughts were turned to the immeasurability of the world. I separated mentally from the earth, it seemed to me that the kibit blows were easier for me.”

Vyazemsky dedicated a whole poem to her, very angry: “And this casemate is movable, / And this torture is movable, / Which is called: wagon.” Pushkin is more cheerful: “Blowing up the fluffy reins, the daring carriage flies.” On the other hand, in his “Road Complaints” he laments: “How long will I walk in the world / Now in a carriage, now on horseback, / Now in a wagon, now in a carriage, / Now in a cart, now on foot?”

K - Stroller

Nikolay Sverchkov. Riding in a stroller (Alexander II with children). Yaroslavl Art Museum

In Russia, “carriages” meant many types of open spring carriages. For example, the types of city strollers were the landau and the phaeton. In Europe, on the contrary, a specific type of fashionable carriage was called a “stroller”.

The stroller became the heroine of Gogol’s story of the same name: the owner boasts that it is light as a feather, and the springs are as if “a nanny rocked you in a cradle.” In the end, it turns out that the boast is empty. Vyazemsky dedicated a poem of the same name to her: “A light carriage rushes, / And the mind easily carries with it.” A beautiful carriage is a matter of prestige: Dolly Oblonskaya and her coachman are embarrassed by their old, patched carriage during a visit to Vronsky’s village.

Lydia (looking out the window). Wait! What kind of stroller is this? Lace! Did maman really take this for me? What a beauty, what a luxury! Ay! I'll faint. This is not a stroller, this is a dream. You can choke from the happiness of sitting in this stroller. What's wrong with me?

Alexander Ostrovsky. "Mad Money"

It all ends with technical progress: “An elegant stroller, in an electric beater, / Elastically rustled along the highway sand” (Igor Severyanin).

L - Lando

The carriage, named after the German city, was a four-seater with a lift-up top that turned it into a carriage at will. Zhukovsky in “A Trip to Maneuvers” tells how the roof somehow refused to open: “There, here, the landau is stubborn; / He overruled all the ladies, / Forced them to move / Without ceremony to another, / And he himself went empty.”

A beautiful foreign word denoted a fashionable form of transport, a must for a person from society. The hero of Mamin-Sibiryak needs a landau in order to “show them all that I can drive like the rest of them.”

From Grigorovich we read: “How many expenses, my God, how many expenses! We had to hire new horses and exchange our carriage for a landau; people of a certain position are embarrassed to show themselves to music in the evenings; that’s how it is in Peterhof” (“City and Village”).

S - Sani

Ivan Pelevin. Children in a sleigh. 1870. Nizhny Tagil Museum of Fine Arts, Nizhny Tagil, Sverdlovsk region

Another means of transportation that has been written into poetry for a long time. “And having split the shafts, the sleigh is waiting / When they will be harnessed” (Zhukovsky); “Towards the city of Ryazan / Three sleighs are rolling, / The sleighs are collapsing / The arcs are painted” (Mei), etc. Unlike the sleighs, not only peasants can be seen in the sleighs. The nobles own their own sleighs and ride in them, lying down comfortably and wrapped in warm blankets and blankets.

In the nineteenth century, the population of large cities increased at a very rapid pace, which led to the need for the development of public transport suitable for the mass transport of passengers. Urban horse-drawn railways, called “horse-horse” in Russia, became such a means of transportation in the New and Old Worlds.

The ancient horse-drawn horse was a multi-seat lightweight carriage driven along a rail track by a horse. On the roof, and eventually on the front platform of the horse-drawn horse, sat the carriage driver. Since the influx of passengers was constantly increasing, it was necessary to find ways to increase the number of horse-drawn seats. At the time when serfdom was abolished in Russia, double-decker trailers had already appeared in England. Over time, they spread throughout Russian cities. You could ride on the upper open area for a small fee, so children and the poor most often rode there.

Over time, horse trams turned into real ones, as new trams with mechanical engines appeared. At that time there already existed a large number of spent steam plants that successfully propelled railways, sea and river vessels. It was only necessary to reduce their piston engines and steam boilers up to the size of a horse-drawn horse. It turned out that it was not so easy to introduce steam trams into use - the locomotive made a lot of noise when moving, and chimney Dust and fumes fell.

The search for new ways to improve city trams continued. One of the variations of the ancient tram was a car built in 1876 by the French engineer Mekarsky. His tram was powered by an expansion piston machine, in which a supply of air was stored under a pressure of 30 atmospheres in several cylinders. This amount of air was enough for more than ten kilometers of movement. Although the tram proposed by the French scientist was absolutely environmentally friendly, no one wanted to build numerous compressor stations and spend time recharging with air.

Finally, in 1881, an old tram built by Siemens appeared in Berlin. It was equipped with a “newfangled” electric motor. An important innovation in the history of tram development was the use of an electric motor, a wheel pair in the form of a monoblock trolley and a gearbox. Such a tram system was developed by the inventor Sprague. Almost immediately it spread to many countries around the world and became the prototype of modern trams.

Although Sprague's system was an almost ideal solution, the search for ways to create a tram without an electrical contact system, which required a huge investment of capital, continued. A solution was found through the creation of autonomous propulsion systems. So, on the lines of Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1899, experimental cars appeared that used electricity, literally carried with them. This project also did not last long, because the batteries for trams were incredibly large and heavy.

A) the cast iron rails could not support the heavy car (iron was too expensive in those years) b) the car exploded due to overheating of the engine c) the weight of the car did not correspond to the size of the wheels, as a result of which it collapsed. The first steam locomotive was built in 1804. However, the project failed. What was the reason: steam locomotive 1804) the engine did not have enough power to move km/h 250 km/h

The story is about the serf peasant Artamonov, who designed a bicycle around 1800. According to this legend, the inventor made a successful run on his bicycle from the Ural village of Verkhoturye to Moscow (about two thousand miles). This was the world's first bicycle race. The serf Artamonov was sent on this journey by his owner, the owner of the factory, who wanted to surprise Tsar Alexander I with an “outlandish scooter.” For the invention of the bicycle, Artamonov and all his offspring were granted freedom from serfdom. The bicycle is kept in the Nizhny Tagil Museum of Local Lore.

Select the correct items. It is forbidden to ride a bicycle with a faulty handlebar It is allowed to ride on sidewalks It is allowed to ride without holding the handlebars It is forbidden to carry passengers over 7 years old It is allowed to ride on the road without lights It is forbidden to ride without a sound signal It is allowed to ride a bicycle for people over 14 years of age It is forbidden to ride in pairs along the width of the road True False It is forbidden to ride a bicycle with a faulty handlebar It is allowed to ride on sidewalks It is allowed to ride without holding the handlebars It is forbidden to carry passengers over 7 years old It is allowed to ride on the road without lights It is forbidden to ride without a sound signal Persons over 14 years of age are allowed to ride a bicycle It is forbidden to ride in pairs across the width roads

Karl Benz () built his first car in Mannheim in 1885

Since 1917, all BMW products have been branded with the spinning propeller symbol. A BMW aircraft engine sets a world record. In June 1919, test pilot Franz Zeno Diemer set a world altitude record for flying an open-cockpit aircraft without an oxygen mask in a BMW IV-powered aircraft. The flight altitude was 9670 meters. It all started in 1913 with the idea of ​​merging two companies Rapp Motorenwerke and Otto Flugzeugwerke (Otto’s father had created a four-stroke engine four years earlier), both entrepreneurs were passionate about aircraft construction

is a company whose history began with a traffic jam. Exactly building materials The company founded by Jujiro Matsuda in 1920 dealt with balsa wood. In 1931, the company began producing purely Japanese cars. Since 1960, Mazda began producing passenger cars. Today, Mazda focuses on small and medium-class cars, as well as sports models

1907, Moscow The first car-bus for public use The prototype of a new generation of public transport, an electric bus that will travel both on ordinary roads and on special “super tracks”, on which it can reach speeds of up to 250 km/h. This bus has approximately the same length and width as conventional buses, but is only 1.7 m in height - to achieve greater aerodynamics. Moreover, such a bus is designed for 30 seats. According to the developers, in order to “catch” such a bus, the passenger will need to send an SMS to the dispatcher, and then they will pick him up anywhere. The developers plan to present a fully functional prototype in 2 years.

Persons who are over ______ years old and have a license to drive a motorcycle are allowed to drive a motorcycle. A person learning to drive a motorcycle must be at least ______ years old. Carrying passengers on a motorcycle is only allowed ______________ ____________________________ It is not allowed to transport persons who are under ________ years old. Motorcycle drivers , moving pairs must travel ____________ Fill in the missing characters in a stroller or on the back seat of a motorcycle 12 one after another

In Miami, it is illegal to ride bicycles that are not equipped with a horn, but the use of horns by cyclists is prohibited. YES In Indiana there is a speed limit for driverless cars mph YES In Spain it is customary to break a glass of champagne on the back of a new car when buying a new car NO In England and the USA it is considered a bad sign green color car. YES Evidence of the construction of the very first ship is contained in the Bible YES

Michael Arndt spent 6 years, matches and 1,686 tubes of glue creating a full-size replica of the McLaren 4/14 F1 car. The car cost Michael 6,000 euros. For transportation, the car can be disassembled into 45 components.

It took Italian confectioners 2 tons of Belgian chocolate worth dollars and more than a year of painstaking work to create a life-size replica of a Ferrari car.

The largest motorcycle in the world The largest motorcycle in the world was built in 3 years by American Greg Dunham. The iron horse, weighing almost 3 tons, 4.5 meters high and 7.6 meters long, cost the Californian dollars. The motorcycle was included in the Guinness Book of Records, and what’s most interesting is that you can ride it!

Such well-known water vehicles as the raft, ferry, boat, which are still well known today, were used by the ancestors of the Russians - the Slavs. This is evidenced by chronicles telling about the campaigns of brave Novgorodians in the 11th-12th centuries. on Koch ships to the “Icy Sea” - the Arctic Ocean, about the voyages of the Arkhangelsk Pomors in the 16th-17th centuries. to Taimyr and Spitsbergen, this is confirmed by archaeological finds - ancient oak boats discovered during excavations on the banks of rivers.

At all times, the water system of the large Eastern European and Siberian rivers - the Volga, Don, Oka, Yenisei, Lena, Irtysh - was important for the lives of people who settled over the vast expanses of Russia. Waterways connected the country into a single whole, giving life to many cities, towns, and hamlets. In some places European Russia and Siberia, the waterway from early spring to late autumn was the only way of communication between villages. In the 19th century water vehicles, primarily boats, are characterized by the greatest variety of types, differing in purpose, carrying capacity, shape, methods of manufacture and control.

The boats were built from planks or sawn boards or hollowed out from a tree trunk; they could be flat-bottomed or with a rounded bottom, narrow and long (up to 20-30 m) or, conversely, short and wide. Movement was carried out with the help of oars, sails, and poles, which were used to push off from the bottom of reservoirs. Large vessels (barges, barges) moved with the help of horses or barge haulers, walking along the river bank and pulling the ship by ropes attached to it, and in 1817 - with the help of steam.

Each type of boat had its own name: komyaga, plow, shitik, kayuk, gusyanka, barka, oblas, fin, bot, bark, layba, kayak, longboat, etc. Based on the method of manufacturing, the boats were called dugouts, planks, and according to the place of manufacture - Unzhenkas, Ilimkas, Belozerkas, Tikhvinkas, Mokshankas, Kolomenkas, according to the material from which they were made - Osipovnas, oaks, according to their purpose - seine boats, rybnitsa, sailors, importers, etc. The construction of water transport itself is becoming an industry: in those regions of Russia, where there were a lot of forests, rivers and lakes, boats were made for sale by craftsmen at special rafts.

Traditional Russian land vehicles are skids, wheeled vehicles and drags. Skid vehicles - primarily sleighs - are the main type of transport in Russia in winter. Depending on the intended purpose, the sleds differed in size, appearance and finishing. To transport heavy, bulky loads, firewood was used, for transporting small luggage and people - sledges, for festive rides and long-distance trips - more comfortable carts: running shoes, koshevas, jumps, etc.

Skis also belong to skid transport, which were of great importance in the life and economic activities of Russian people. Skis were used for hunting. They were often the only means of transportation in winter in the taiga areas of Siberia and the Russian North. In spring, summer and autumn, wheeled transport was used. Peasant cart, relatively wide, with four wooden wheels without metal frame, was well known throughout Russia. It was convenient to transport sheaves, hay, bags of flour and grain, manure for arable land, firewood; we used it to go to the forest, to the field, to a neighboring village for a fair, or to visit.

In different areas, carts were called differently: sheaf cart, grain cart, dung cart, oder, ratka, drogi, dolgusha, rydvan, etc. Similar in design, they had slight differences in the structure of the body, which could be solid plank, woven from wicker, sparse , deep or shallow. Along with carts, in cities and villages, four-wheeled carts - tarantass, walker, koshevka, cart, droshky, droshky, ruler, chaise - were used to go out on a holiday for a ride or to visit. They had a wooden, metal or wicker body and were designed for two to four people. The outer sides of the body were decorated with carvings or paintings, and the seats were often upholstered in leather.

Two-wheeled carts also became widespread in Russian everyday life: medvedka, korotayka, one-wheeled cart, one-carriage cart, gig cart, pitching cart, wagtail cart, tarataika cart, spring cart, bedarka cart, convertible cart, which were used mainly for travel and to a lesser extent for transporting goods. Land vehicles such as sleighs and carts have been known in Russia for a long time. Sled various designs used back in Ancient Rus'- both in winter and in summer time. Carts also appeared in Russian use just as early, although they became widespread only in the 18th century, when they began to actively build roads connecting not only large cities, but also villages.

Exit carts, wheeled and runner, were made by special craftsmen - sledge workers and cart makers - to order or for sale at fairs. They were quite expensive and were purchased mainly by wealthy people. Simpler vehicles, such as firewood and carts, were made by the peasants themselves on their farms, and wheels, which were quite difficult to make at home, were bought from wheelwrights. The simplest and most accessible means of transporting heavy and bulky goods were drags2. They were most often used for removing logs from the forest and “fermenting” hay and straw. In different areas they were called differently: voloshenka, smyk, drag, mare, drag, whisk, drag, runner, differing in individual design details.

As a rule, it was a log with a fork at the end or two long thick poles connected by boards, harnessed to the horse with lines or thin ends of the poles. However, in a number of regions of Russia skid drags and even wheeled drags were well known. The widespread use of this type of transport in Russian villages is explained not so much by the backwardness of the peasant economy, but natural conditions, the lack of good roads, and most importantly, the simplicity of the construction of drags and their low cost.

The main draft animal for the Russians was a horse, which was harnessed to a cart using shafts, a collar and a bow, and the most common harness in both winter and summer was a single-horse harness. On a holiday, two horses could be harnessed to the cart, with one of them, a root horse, walking under the arc, and the other, called the drawn one, walking next to it on the lines. A harness of three horses - a troika, consisting of a root horse and two harness horses, was used mainly in pit racing and during festive festivities. A number of articles in the section talk about the main types of harness, as well as traditional elements of the harness, without a description of which we will talk about vehicles of the Russian people would be incomplete.